CHAPTER 48: NERVOUS SYSTEMS
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1 CHAPTER 48: NERVOUS SYSTEMS Name I. AN OVERVIEW OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS A. Nervous systems perform the three overlapping functions of sensory input, integration, and motor output B. Networks of neurons with intricate connections form nervous systems 1. Neuron Structure and Synapses Page 1 of 17 1
2 2. A Simple Nerve Circuit-the Reflex Arc 3. Types of Nerve Circuits 4. Supporting Cells (Glia) a) Supporting Cells or glia (i) much more numerous than neurons (ii) some synapses occur between glial cells and neurons Page 2 of 17 2
3 (iii) types of glial cells -radial glia: in embryo; form tracks for migrating neurons or if the neurons are forming axons and dendrites from what will eventually become the CNS. -astrocytes: mature glial cells; physical support and nutritional support to neurons; helps to form the blood brain barrier that prevents the passage of most substances into the brain. -Oligodendrocytes: are glial cells in the CNS; these form the myelin sheaths around the axons -Schwann cells: glial cells in the PNS that form the same myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons. Myelin Notes: II. THE NATURE OF NERVE SIGNALS A. Every cell has a voltage, or membrane potential, across its plasma membrane 1. Introduction a) Membrane Potential 2. Measuring Membrane Potentials a) Resting Potential: - 70 mv in a mammalian neuron (5% of a flashlight battery) Page 3 of 17 3
4 3. How a Cell Maintains a Membrane Potential (Figure 48.6, 48.7) Page 4 of 17 4
5 B. Changes in the membrane potential of a neuron give rise to nerve impulses 1. Introduction a) Excitable Cells: cells that can have ions flow across their membranes and also produce large changes in their potential. b) Resting Potential: the voltage across a membrane when it is unexcited, that is, before a stimulus such as light, heat, pain, movement, etc. c) Special channels will open up and let ions flow d) Gated ion channels exist as well. These can be opened by chemicals such as neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin) or voltage gated which is a channel that opens due to a change in membrane potential (ion flow) Just keep in mind that chemicals and voltage or ion flow can open all sorts of channels for ions to flow and cause nerve cell responses. 2. Graded Potentials: Hyperpolarization and Depolarization a) Hyperpolarization b) Depolarization c) Graded Potentials: you can hyperpolarize a nerve a lot or a little (graded) depending on how much potassium you let in. If you let in a lot you can hyperpolarize so the membrane potential is 500 let s say so then it is very hard or harder to reach the threshold stimulus. Depolarization can also be graded because a minor stimulus will not reach the threshold stimulus level as fast. 3. The Action Potential: All or Nothing Depolarization Page 5 of 17 5
6 Page 6 of 17 6
7 C. Nerve impulses propagate themselves along an axon Name Page 7 of 17 7
8 D. Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses 1. Electrical Synapses 2. Chemical Synapses Page 8 of 17 8
9 E. Neural integration occurs at the cellular level (Fig 48.13) 1. Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential a) All this refers to a neurotransmitter that will open sodium gates, making the membrane potential more positive (less negative) and bringing the membrane potential closer to the threshold stimulus for firing of the nerve. 2. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential 3. Summation Page 9 of 17 9
10 F. The same neurotransmitter can produce different effects on different types of cells 1. Introduction 2. Acetylcholine a) can be excitatory or inhibitory b) depends on the receptor c) it is released where a nerve innervates a skeletal muscle such as the biceps (i) causes depolarization on the muscle cell membrane d) it is also released in cardiac muscle tissue (i) here is causes hyperpolarization by opening potassium ion channels 3. Biogenic Amines a) Examples: 4. Other Chemicals Neurotransmitters Page 10 of 17 10
11 5. Gaseous Signals of the Nervous System III. EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS A. The ability of cells to respond to the environment has evolved over billions of years B. Nervous systems show diverse patterns of organization 1. Introduction a) the neurons or building blocks are the same in all organisms, it is how they are arranged / networked that makes for the diversity. 2. Sponges 3. Hydra and Nerve Nets 4. Planarian and Cephalization Page 11 of 17 11
12 5. Annelids and Insects a) they have a ventral nerve cord with collections of nerve cell bodies (ganglia) b) the ganglia are arranged such that they innervate specific segments of the invertebrate s body. 6. Sessile mollusks lack cephalization IV. VERTEBRATE NERVOUS SYSTEMS A. Vertebrate nervous systems have central and peripheral components 1. CNS vs. PNS 2. Central canal a) filled with cerebrospinal fluid b) runs down the spinal cord c) fluid runs up into the ventricles of the brain 3. White and Gray Matter Page 12 of 17 12
13 B. The divisions of the PNS interact in maintaining homeostasis (Fig 48.17) 1. Spinal and cranial nerves 2. Sensory and Motor Divisions of the PNS 3. Motor Division is divided into two parts, somatic and autonomic a) Somatic Division b) Autonomic Division (i) The Autonomic NS has two divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic Sympathetic branch of the autonomic NS Page 13 of 17 13
14 Parasympathetic branch of the autonomic NS C. Embryonic development of the vertebrate brain reflects sits evolution from three anterior bulges of the neural tube. 1. The neural tube(which comes from ectoderm tissue) develops into the brain 2. As the neural tube develops, it forms the dorsal hollow nerve cord that will become your spinal cord and brain. 3. There develops 3 bulges that will eventually differentiate into all parts of the brain. These three parts are: a) forebrain: which will develop into the: (i) telencephalon which produces the cerebrum (ii) diencephalons which produces the thalamus, hypothalamus b) midbrain: which will develop into the: (i) mesencephalon that matures into an area called the midbrain that integrates all sorts of information coming in (sensory) to your body. There are all sorts of nerve cells gathered together into what are called nuclei. These nuclei have specific functions. Reticular Formation is one part of the midbrain. It is involved with sleep and awakeness or arousal or alertness. The R. formation also filters stimuli. The midbrain is part of what is called the brain stem. c) hindbrain: develops into the pons and medulla (medulla oblongata) (i) the pons and medulla are also part of the brain stem (iii) Medulla regulates heart rate, breathing, digestion (iv) Pons regulates breathing D. Evolutionarily older structures of the vertebrate brain regulate essential automatic and integrative functions 1. The Brainstem a) Introduction (i) Look where it is located. (ii) Notice it is at the top of the spinal cord (iii) The parts that make it up: medulla, pons and midbrain b) The Medulla and Pons (i) This part of the brain is for data collection. All sensory axons carrying information to the cerebral cortex and all motor axons carrying info from the cerebral cortex, pass through this area in order to integrate movement. Page 14 of 17 14
15 c) The Midbrain (i) Integration of sensory info occurs here (ii) Nuclei or groups of nerve cell bodies are grouped here (iii) Sensory info such as hearing, vision 2. The Reticular System, Arousal and Sleep 3. Cerebellum (more likely to be required to know this than reticular system) 4. Thalamus and Hypothalamus a) Introduction (i) Embryonic diencephalon develops into: (1) epithalamus: made up of (a) a network of capillaries that produce cerebrospinal fluid. The pineal gland also is part of the epithalamus. (2) Thalamus: sorts out sensory info going to cerebrum and sorts out motor info coming from cerebrum by passing these impulses through nuclei. (3) Hypothalamus: makes hormones that get secreted from the post. Pituitary and makes releasing factors that control the anterior pituitary. If you have a physiological problem here, it is a big problem. b) The Hypothalamus and Circadian Rhythms Page 15 of 17 15
16 E. The cerebrum is the most highly evolved structure of the mammalian brain 1. Develops from the telencephalon 2. Cerebral Hemispheres a) Gray Matter: this is the outer portion made up of dendrites and nerve cell bodies F. Regions of the cerebrum are specialized for different functions (you should have a general idea of these regions and their functions in case you have a diagram) 1. Introduction a) Four lobes 2. Integrative Function of the Association Areas a) The association areas are well developed in mammals. b) This has made more complex behavior and learning possible c) The cortex of our brain is highly convoluted to increase surface area for the association regions. 3. Lateralization of Brain Function a) Left Hemisphere does what? b) Right Hemisphere does... Page 16 of 17 16
17 4. Language and Speech a) Broca s Area: used for speech b) Wernicke s Area: used to understand speech c) current research shows many different areas are now required for understanding speech. 5. Emotions a) Limbic System: of huge importance. This is where emotional memories are stored; stored in nervous pathways. Do you see why we may act certain ways when certain emotions are elicited (our buttons are pushed?) b) You can take more notes on this if you want but that s about all of the test info you need but it is truly a fascinating area of the brain. 6. Memory and Learning (you just need to know about short and long term memory). The LTP s are pretty interesting in terms of explaining how learning occurs. You may want to relate this to how you learn / not learn. 7. Human Consciousness G. Research on neuron development and neural stem cells may lead to new approaches for treating CNS injuries and diseases. Read for your own pleasure Page 17 of 17 17
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