Dendrites Receive impulse from the axon of other neurons through synaptic connection. Conduct impulse towards the cell body Axon

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1 Dendrites Receive impulse from the axon of other neurons through synaptic connection. Conduct impulse towards the cell body Axon Page 22 of 237 Conduct impulses away from cell body Impulses arise from initial segment (trigger zone) End in fine processes called axon terminals Swollen tips- synaptic end bulbs - contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. 22

2 Functional Classification of Neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons transport sensory information from skin, muscles, joints, sense organs & viscera to CNS Page 23 of 237 Motor (efferent) neurons send motor nerve impulses to muscles & glands Interneurons (association) neurons connect sensory to motor neurons 90% of neurons in the body 23

3 SUPPORTING CELLS Known as neuroglial or glial cells The majority cells of the CNS Smaller cells than neurons Page 24 of 237 Cells can divide 4 cell types in CNS astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia & ependymal 2 cell types in PNS schwann and satellite cells 24

4 Page 45 of 237 A C T I O N P O T E N T I A L 45

5 Hyperpolarization Excessive movement of K + (to inside cell) occurs Page 49 of 237 This causes hyperpolarization of the membrane (undershoot) i. e. the potential becomes more negative than the resting potential 49

6 The Action Potential: SUMMARY Resting membrane potential is -70mV Depolarization is the change from -70mV to +30 mv Page 52 of 237 Repolarization is the reversal from +30 mv back to -70 mv) Hyperpolarization The reversal continues slightly before attaining the resting potential. 52

7 PROPOGATION OF AP An action potential spreads (propagates) over the surface of the axon membrane The changes in the process of depolarization and repolarization occurs (repeats) along the axon towards the axon terminal. The traveling action potential is called a nerve impulse Page 53 of

8 Propagation of action potential AP or impulse moves along the axon as: Continuous conduction (along unmyelinated fibers (axons)) Nerve impulse travels continuosly along the axon. Saltatory conduction (Myelinated nerve) Nerve impulse jumps from one node of Ranvier to another. Page 55 of

9 NEUROTRANSMITTERS A chemical substance, when released, transmits nerve impulses across a synapse. Page 66 of 237 Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters Important neurotransmitters include acetylcholine,, noradrenalin, adrenalin, and dopamine, glutamate, aspartate, gamma aminobutyric acid, glycine, nitric oxide (NO) 66

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11 Page 77 of

12 CEREBRUM Folds (gyri) Grooves (sulci or fissures) Longitudinal fissure separates left & right cerebral hemispheres Each hemisphere is subdivided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Page 81 of 237 Contain the higher brain centres. 81

13 FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE BRAIN Motor areas Located in the precentral gyrus Page 83 of 237 Conscious control of voluntary (muscular) movements Sensory areas Located in the postcentral gyrus Involves in conscious awareness of sensation Association areas Integrate diverse information 83

14 Sensory Areas Page 93 of Figure 12.8a

15 Basal Nuclei Masses of gray matter found deep within the cortical white matter Specific functions Page 98 of

16 Thalamus Page 107 of

17 Protection of the Brain The brain is protected by the: Cranial bones Cranial meninges (membranes/coverings) The cranial meninges are continuous with the spinal meninges and are named: dura mater, arachnoid, and pia Page 118 of 237 mater. 118

18 Page 121 of

19 Hydrocephalus Accumulation of CSF in the brain ventricles Page 127 of 237 Due to blockage of drainage of CSF) Continued (excessive) production causes an increase in pressure - hydrocephalus In newborn causes expansion of the skull and damage to the brain tissue 127

20 Brain Waves Normal brain function involves continuous electrical activity An electroencephalogram (EEG) records Page 131 of 237 this activity Patterns of neuronal electrical activity recorded are called brain waves Each person s brain waves are unique Continuous train of peaks and troughs Wave frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz)

21 Cerebrum Higher brain centres Cerebral Cortex Page 144 of 237 Specialized parts - Frontal Lobe, Parietal, Occipital Lobe, Temporal Lobe Motor cortex Sensory cortex 144

22 Spinal cord - Gray Matter Dorsal half sensory roots and Page 159 of 237 ganglia Ventral half motor roots Dorsal and ventral roots fuse laterally to form spinal nerves 159

23 Nerve tracts (Pathways) Represent passage in which nerve impulse travels from outside to CNS and vice versa. Ascending tracts Descending tracts Page 163 of

24 Ascending (Sensory) Pathways Sensory impulse is carried from the Page 164 of 237 sensory receptors through the afferent nerve into the spinal cord (white matter) Ascend to the sensory cortex of the opposite side of the brain 164

25 Components of reflex arc Page 177 of

26 Knee jerk reflex A sudden involuntary forward movement of the lower leg that can be produced by Page 178 of 237 a firm tap to the patellar tendon located just below the kneecap. Tapping on the tendon stretches the quadriceps muscle. This stimulates the sensory receptor ( muscle spindle) to produce nerve impulse 178

27 Sensory receptor neuron cord Knee jerk reflex afferent (sensory) integrating centre in the spinal Page 179 of 237 efferent (motor) neuron effector contraction of quadriceps muscle the knee jerks forward involunatrily 179

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29 SYNAPTIC TRANSFER OF IMPULSE Impulse is transferred from neuron to neuron via synapse (no direct connection). Page 192 of 237 Synapse Is the functional junction between one neuron and another Or between a neuron and an effector such as a muscle (neuromuscular junction) or gland. 192

30 TOPICS Peripheral nervous system Receptor physiology Reflex action Page 200 of 237

31 Receptor Class by Location: 2. Interoceptors: Respond to stimuli arising within the body Page 206 of 237 Found in internal viscera and blood vessels Sensitive to chemical changes, stretch, and temperature changes

32 Receptor Classification by Structural Complexity Receptors are structurally classified Page 208 of 237 as either simple or complex Most receptors are simple and include encapsulated and unencapsulated varieties Complex receptors are special sense organs

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34 Simple Receptors: Encapsulated Page 214 of 237 Table

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36 Page 221 of 237 Ascending (Sensory) Pathway Figure 12.33b

37 Classification of Nerves Sensory and motor divisions Sensory (afferent) carry impulse Page 226 of 237 to the CNS Motor (efferent) carry impulses from CNS Mixed sensory and motor fibers carry impulses to and from CNS; most common type of nerve

38 Sensory receptor neuron cord Knee jerk reflex afferent (sensory) integrating centre in the spinal Page 231 of 237 efferent (motor) neuron effector contraction of quadriceps muscle the knee jerks forward involunatrily 231

39 Page 233 of

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