10.1: Introduction. Cell types in neural tissue: Neurons Neuroglial cells (also known as neuroglia, glia, and glial cells) Dendrites.

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1 10.1: Introduction Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cell types in neural tissue: Neurons Neuroglial cells (also known as neuroglia, glia, and glial cells) Dendrites Cell body Nuclei of neuroglia Axon Ed Reschke 1

2 10.2: General Functions of the Nervous System The three general functions of the nervous system: Receiving stimuli = sensory function Deciding about stimuli = integrative function Reacting to stimuli = motor function 2

3 Functions of Nervous System Sensory Function Sensory receptors gather information Information is carried to the CNS Integrative Function Sensory information used to create: Sensations Memory Thoughts Decisions Motor Function Decisions are acted upon Impulses are carried to effectors 3

4 Divisions of the Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Cranial nerves Spinal nerves 4

5 Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System Sensory Division Picks up sensory information and delivers it to the CNS Motor Division Carries information to muscles and glands Divisions of the Motor Division: Somatic carries information to skeletal muscle Autonomic carries information to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands 5

6 Divisions Nervous System Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Brain Cranial nerves Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) Peripheral Nervous System (cranial and spinal nerves) Spinal cord Spinal nerves Sensory division Sensory receptors Motor division Somatic Nervous System Skeletal muscle Autonomic Nervous System Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Glands (a) (b) 6

7 10.3: Description of Cells of the Nervous System Neurons vary in size and shape They may differ in length and size of their axons and dendrites Neurons share certain features: Dendrites A cell body An axon 7

8 Neuron Structure Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) Dendrites Nucleus Nucleolus Axonal hillock Cell body Neurofibrils Synaptic knob of axon terminal Nodes of Ranvier Myelin (cut) Impulse Axon Schwann cell Axon Nucleus of Schwann cell Portion of a collateral 8

9 Myelination of Axons White Matter Contains myelinated axons Considered fiber tracts Gray Matter Contains unmyelinated structures Cell bodies, dendrites (a) Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Dendrite Neuron cell body Neuron nucleus Unmyelinated region of axon Myelinated region of axon Node of Ranvier Axon Longitudinal groove (c) Enveloping Schwann cell Schwann cell nucleus Unmyelinated axon 9

10 Types of Neuroglial Cells in the PNS 1) Schwann Cells Produce myelin found on peripheral myelinated neurons Speed up neurotransmission 2) Satellite Cells Support clusters of neuron cell bodies (ganglia) 10

11 Types of Neuroglial Cells in the CNS 1) Microglia CNS Phagocytic cell 3) Oligodendrocytes CNS Myelinating cell 2) Astrocytes CNS Scar tissue Mop up excess ions, etc. Induce synapse formation Connect neurons to blood vessels Part of Blood Brain Barrier 4) Ependyma or ependymal CNS Ciliated Line central canal of spinal cord Line ventricles of brain Produce CSF 11

12 Types of Neuroglial Cells Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fluid-filled cavity of the brain or spinal cord Ependymal cell Neuron Oligodendrocyte Astrocyte Microglial cell Capillary Axon Myelin sheath (cut) Node of Ranvier 12

13 10.4: Classification of Neurons Neurons vary in function and Neuroglia They can be sensory, motor, or integrative neurons Neurons vary in size and shape, and in the number of axons and dendrites that they may have Due to structural differences, neurons can be classified into three (3) major groups: Bipolar neurons Unipolar neurons Multipolar neurons 13

14 Classification of Neurons: Structural Differences Bipolar neurons dendrite, axon, cb in middle Eyes, ears, nose Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Dendrites Unipolar neurons Two ax process Ganglia of PNS Sensory Peripheral process Multipolar neurons 99% of neurons Many processes Most neurons of CNS Direction of impulse Axon (a) Multipolar Axon (b) Bipolar Central process Axon (c) Unipolar 14

15 Classification of Neurons: Sensory Neurons Afferent Carry impulse to CNS Most are unipolar Some are bipolar Interneurons Link neurons Aka association neurons or internuncial neurons Multipolar Located in CNS Functional Differences Motor Neurons Multipolar Carry impulses away from CNS Carry impulses to effectors Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Central nervous system Cell body Interneurons Axon Cell body Axon (central process) Axon Peripheral nervous system Sensory (afferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Dendrites Sensory receptor Axon (peripheral process) Effector (muscle or gland) Axon terminal 15

16 Regeneration of A Nerve Axon Changes over time (a) Motor neuron cell body Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Axon Site of injury Schwann cells Distal portion of axon degenerates Skeletal muscle fiber (b) (c) (d) (e) Proximal end of injured axon regenerates into tube of sheath cells Schwann cells degenerate Schwann cells proliferate Former connection reestablished 16

17 10.5: The Synapse Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nerve impulses pass from neuron to neuron at synapses, moving from a pre-synaptic neuron to a post-synaptic neuron. Synaptic cleft Dendrites Impulse Axon of presynaptic neuron Axon hillock of Postsynaptic neuron Axon of presynaptic neuron Impulse Cell body of postsynaptic neuron Impulse 17

18 Synaptic Transmission Neurotransmitters are released when impulse reaches synaptic knob Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Synaptic knob Direction of nerve impulse Axon Synaptic vesicles Ca 2 Ca 2 Presynaptic neuron Cell body or dendrite of postsynaptic neuron Mitochondrion Ca 2 Synaptic vesicle Vesicle releasing neurotransmitter Axon membrane Neurotransmitter Synaptic cleft (a) Polarized membrane Depolarized membrane 18

19 Animation: Chemical Synapse Please note that due to differing Please operating note systems, that due some to differing animations operating will not appear systems, until some the presentation animations is will viewed not in appear Presentation until the Mode presentation (Slide is viewed Show view). in Presentation You may see Mode blank (Slide slides Show in the Normal view). You or may Slide see Sorter blank slides views. in All the animations Normal will or Slide appear Sorter after viewing views. All in Presentation animations will Mode appear and playing after viewing each in animation. Presentation Most Mode animations and playing will require each animation. the latest version Most animations of the Flash will Player, require the which latest is available version of at the Flash Player, which is available at 19

20 10.6: Cell Membrane Potential A cell membrane is usually electrically charged, or polarized, so that the inside of the membrane is negatively charged with respect to the outside of the membrane (which is then positively charged). This is as a result of unequal distribution of ions on the inside and the outside of the membrane. 20

21 Distribution of Ions Potassium (K ) ions are the major intracellular positive ions (cations). Sodium (Na ) ions are the major extracellular positive ions (cations). This distribution is largely created by the Sodium/Potassium Pump (Na /K pump). This pump actively transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell. 21

22 Resting Potential Resting Membrane Potential (RMP): 70 mv difference from inside to outside of cell It is a polarized membrane Inside of cell is negative relative to the outside of the cell RMP = -70 mv Due to distribution of ions inside vs. outside Na /K pump restores (a) High Na Low Na Impermeant anions High K Low K Cell body High Na Na Low Na Pump K Low K High K Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 70 mv (b) Axon Axon terminal 70 mv (c) 22

23 Local Potential Changes Caused by various stimuli: Temperature changes Light Pressure Gate-like mechanism Protein Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cell membrane (a) Channel closed Fatty acid tail Phosphate head (b) Channel open Environmental changes affect the membrane potential by opening a gated ion channel Channels are 1) chemically gated, 2) voltage gated, or 3) mechanically gated 23

24 Local Potential Changes If membrane potential becomes more negative, it has hyperpolarized If membrane potential becomes less negative, it has depolarized Graded (or proportional) to intensity of stimulation reaching threshold potential Reaching threshold potential results in a nerve impulse, starting an action potential 24

25 Local Potential Changes Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Na Na 62 mv Neurotransmitter Chemically-gated Na channel (a) Presynaptic neuron Voltage-gated Na channel Na Na Na Na Na Trigger zone (axon hillock) 55 mv (b) 25

26 Action Potentials At rest, the membrane is polarized (RMP = -70) Threshold stimulus reached (-55) K Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na (a) 0 70 Sodium channels open and membrane depolarizes (toward 0) Potassium leaves cytoplasm and membrane repolarizes (30) K Threshold stimulus K Region of depolarization (b) K Na Na Na K K K K Na Na Na K K K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na K K K K K K K K K K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na K K K K K Na channels open K channels closed K channels open Na channels closed Brief period of hyperpolarization (-90) K Na Na Na K K K Region of repolarization (c) K K K K K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na 70 26

27 Membrane potential (millivolts) Action Potentials Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Action potential Resting potential Resting potential reestablished 80 Hyperpolarization Milliseconds 27

28 Action Potentials Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Region of action potential (a) Direction of nerve impulse (b) (c) 28

29 Animation: Action Potential Propagation in Myelinated Neurons Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the Normal or Slide Sorter views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at 29

30 Animation: Action Potential Propagation in Unmyelinated Neurons Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the Normal or Slide Sorter views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at 30

31 All-or-None Response If a neuron axon responds at all, it responds completely with an action potential (nerve impulse) A nerve impulse is conducted whenever a stimulus of threshold intensity or above is applied to an axon All impulses carried on an axon are the same strength 31

32 Refractory Period Absolute Refractory Period Time when threshold stimulus does not start another action potential Relative Refractory Period Time when stronger threshold stimulus can start another action potential 32

33 Impulse Conduction 33

34 Animation: The Nerve Impulse Please note that due to differing Please operating note systems, that due some to differing animations operating will not appear systems, until some the presentation animations is will viewed not in appear Presentation until the Mode presentation (Slide is viewed Show view). in Presentation You may see Mode blank (Slide slides Show in the Normal view). You or may Slide see Sorter blank slides views. in All the animations Normal will or Slide appear Sorter after viewing views. All in Presentation animations will Mode appear and playing after viewing each in animation. Presentation Most Mode animations and playing will require each animation. the latest version Most animations of the Flash will Player, require the which latest is available version of at the Flash Player, which is available at 34

35 10.3 Clinical Application Factors Affecting Impulse Conduction 35

36 10.7: Synaptic Transmission This is where released neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and react with specific molecules called receptors in the postsynaptic neuron membrane. Effects of neurotransmitters vary. Some neurotransmitters may open ion channels and others may close ion channels. 36

37 Synaptic Potentials EPSP Excitatory postsynaptic potential Graded Depolarizes membrane of postsynaptic neuron Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes more likely IPSP Inhibitory postsynaptic potential Graded Hyperpolarizes membrane of postsynaptic neuron Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes less likely 37

38 Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs EPSPs and IPSPs are added together in a process called summation More EPSPs lead to greater probability of an action potential Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Neuron cell body Nucleus Presynaptic knob Presynaptic axon 38

39 Neurotransmitters 39

40 Neurotransmitters 40

41 Neuropeptides Neurons in the brain or spinal cord synthesize neuropeptides. These neuropeptides act as neurotransmitters. Examples include: Enkephalins Beta endorphin Substance P 41

42 10.4 Clinical Application Opiates in the Human Body 42

43 10.8: Impulse Processing Way the nervous system processes nerve impulses and acts upon them Neuronal Pools Interneurons Work together to perform a common function May excite or inhibit Convergence Various sensory receptors Can allow for summation of impulses Divergence Branching axon Stimulation of many neurons ultimately 43

44 Neuronal Pools Groups of interneurons that make synaptic connections with each other Interneurons work together to perform a common function Each pool receives input from other neurons Each pool generates output to other neurons 44

45 Convergence Neuron receives input from several neurons Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Incoming impulses represent information from different types of sensory receptors 1 2 Allows nervous system to collect, process, and respond to information Makes it possible for a neuron to sum impulses from different sources 3 (a) 45

46 Divergence One neuron sends impulses to several neurons Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Can amplify an impulse Impulse from a single neuron in CNS may be amplified to activate enough motor units needed for muscle contraction (b) 46

47 Important Points in Chapter 10: Outcomes to be Assessed 10.1: Introduction Describe the general functions of the nervous system. Identify the two types of cells that comprise nervous tissue. Identify the two major groups of nervous system organs. 10.2: General Functions of the Nervous System List the functions of sensory receptors. Describe how the nervous system responds to stimuli. 10.3: Description of Cells of the Nervous System Describe the three major parts of a neuron. Define neurofibrils and chromatophilic substance. 47

48 Important Points in Chapter 10: Outcomes to be Assessed Describe the relationship among myelin, the neurilemma, and the nodes of Ranvier. Distinguish between the sources of white matter and gray matter. 10.4: Classification of Neurons and Neuroglia Identify structural and functional differences among neurons. Identify the types of neuroglia in the central nervous system and their functions. Describe the Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system. 10.5: The Synapse Define presynaptic and postsynaptic. Explain how information passes from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron. 48

49 Important Points in Chapter 10: Outcomes to be Assessed 10.6: Cell Membrane Potential Explain how a cell membrane becomes polarized. Define resting potential, local potential, and action potential. Describe the events leading to the conduction of a nerve impulse. Compare nerve impulse conduction in myelinated and unmyelinated neurons. 10.7: Synaptic Transmission Identify the changes in membrane potential associated with excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. 10.8: Impulse Processing Describe the basic ways in which the nervous system processes information. 49

50 Quiz 10 Complete Quiz 10 now! Read Chapter

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