CONTROL OF IMPULSIVE CHOICE THROUGH BIASING INSTRUCTIONS. DOUGLAS J. NAVARICK California State University, Fullerton

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1 The Psychological Record, 2001, 51, CONTROL OF IMPULSIVE CHOICE THROUGH BIASING INSTRUCTIONS DOUGLAS J. NAVARICK California State University, Fullerton College students repeatedly chose between an immediate, small reinforcer (viewing animated cartoons for 15 s then waiting 75 s before the next trial) and a delayed, large reinforcer (a delay of 55 s, then a viewing period of 25 s, followed by 10 s of waiting). Participants were classified as impulsive if, in Session 1, they chose the immediate, small reinforcer on at least 70% of trials, or as self-controlled if they chose it on 30% or less. In Session 2, informing impulsive participants about how much viewing time each schedule offered reduced but did not eliminate impulsive responding. Informing self-controlled participants about the different delays had no effect. Giving information consistent with previous preferences resulted in continuation of those preferences. The persistence of impulsive responding despite contrary instructions suggests a heightened tendency to discount the value of delayed reinforcers, a process implicated in drug dependence and other pathologies. Given repeated opportunities to choose between an immediate, small reinforcer and a delayed, large reinforcer, some adults may exhibit "impulsivity" by consistently choosing the former alternative whereas others may exhibit "self-control" by consistently choosing the latter. The extent to which individual differences appear depends partly on the relative size of the reinforcers. In an experiment by Navarick (1998), the reinforcer was videos of animated cartoons. The size of the reinforcer was defined as the period of time for which the video was played on each trial. Delay of reinforcement was defined as the time between the participant's choice response and the onset of the video. The alternative that represented self-controlled choice consisted of a delay of 55 s, followed by 25 s of viewing, and then a waiting period of 10 s before the start of the next trial. The alternative representing impulsive choice consisted of immediate access to a very short, 10-s reinforcer followed by 80 s of I thank Traci Sitzer for her assistance. Requests for reprints should be sent to Douglas J. Navarick, Department of Psychology, P. O. Box 6846, California State University, Fullerton, CA ( dnavarick@ fullerton.edu).

2 550 NAVARICK waiting, or, in another condition, a somewhat longer, 15-s reinforcer, followed by 75 s of waiting. Impulsive or self-controlled responding was defined as choice of the corresponding alternative on at least 70% of the trials. With the 10-s reinforcer, almost all of the participants showed selfcontrol across two sessions. With the 15-s reinforcer, the group was split between 40% impulsive and 40% self-controlled responders, and these choice patterns were maintained across both sessions. A possible interpretation of the impulsive choice was that it may have resulted from a failure to discriminate between the small and large reinforcers. The participants were instructed before the first session that the schedules may differ in delay and/or amount of reinforcement but they were not given the relative or absolute values of the parameters. These instructions were previously found to be necessary to establish schedule control when choice was studied in a single session using videos as reinforcers (Navarick, 1996). Prior to the second session, the participants were informed that the procedures would be the same as in the first session. If the size of the reinforcers had been specified before the second session, it is possible that the impulsive responders would have shifted to self-controlled choice. The present experiment investigated the discrimination hypothesis by presenting instructions prior to the second session that were designed to bias choice away from the preference observed in the first session. The term, instructions, refers here to any sort of verbal information presented to the participant. A set of instructions could include a description of a procedure or it could include a request, either explicit or implicit, to perform in a certain manner. To test the discrimination hypothesis, descriptive information was given related only to the parameter to which subjects had exhibited insensitivity in the previous session. Impulsive responders were told which alternative gave the longer viewing time and self-controlled responders were told which alternative presented the video sooner. In an "elaborate" condition, the precise values were stated. A complicating factor is that, for some participants, the descriptive information could have functioned as an implied request to make choices based on the specified parameter. Therefore, shifts in preference could result from enhanced sensitivity to the indicated parameter, from compliance with an implied request, or from both processes. To determine whether the content of the instructions was responsible for any changes in preference rather than the additional exposure to the schedules during the second session, a control group was given instructions that were consistent rather than contrary to their previous preference: Impulsive responders were told which alternative presented reinforcement sooner and self-controlled responders were told which alternative gave the greater amount. If the instructions controlled choice, then preference should change with contrary instructions but not with consistent instructions.

3 IMPULSIVE CHOICE 551 Method Participants A total of 87 students from introductory psychology classes participated as members of a subject pool. The sign-up sheets for the study listed the title as "Cartoon Viewing" and stated that a commitment was required to attend two, 11/2-hr sessions, with the second session taking place at least 24 hr after the first. Sign-up sheets were posted that could accommodate a second session up to 2 weeks after the first. Longer intervals could be arranged by appointment. There were three groups that differed according to the instructions presented prior to the second session. A group was studied until at least 10 impulsive participants were obtained who served in both sessions. The number of impulsive subjects obtained varied across groups because of time constraints and uncertainty as to the number of participants who would meet the criterion for impulsivity and also attend and complete the second session. For the group that received contrary instructions in Session 2, there were 23 participants: 11 impulsive, 4 self-controlled, 6 not classified, and 2 no-shows. For the consistent-instructions group, there were 31 participants: 10 impulsive, 5 self-controlled, 14 not classified, and 2 no-shows. For the elaborate-contrary-instructions group, there were 33 participants: 13 impulsive, 9 self-controlled, 9 not classified, and 2 no-shows. Participants' genders are listed in tables under Results. Apparatus and Procedure These aspects of the method were identical to those described in detail by Navarick (1998) except for the instructions presented during Session 2. Unchanged aspects of the method are summarized below followed by a verbatim presentation of the new instructions. The participants sat in an unlit room facing a console that contained two, horizontally arrayed, translucent disks that served as response keys, each associated with a schedule of reinforcement. Behind the console was a 21-in. (53.34 cm) video monitor and a videocassette recorder. At the beginning of a session and at the halfway point, participants selected the cartoon to be shown from a list of 26 titles. Both keys were illuminated at the beginning of a trial. A single press on the left or right key turned off both key lights and initiated the schedule associated with the key pressed. A schedule consisted of a sequence of reinforcement and nonreinforcement periods. During reinforcement the selected tape was played and during nonreinforcement the tape was stopped and both the picture and sound were terminated. On the schedule representing impulsive choice, a 15-s reinforcement period was presented immediately after the key press followed by a 75-s nonreinforcement period. On the self-control schedule the sequence was: 55 s nonreinforcement, 25 s reinforcement, 10 s nonreinforcement. Immediately after completion of a schedule the keys were illuminated again for another trial. The total durations of reinforcement and

4 552 NAVARICK nonreinforcement periods were the same on both schedules so that the immediate reinforcer could not be obtained at a higher rate than the delayed reinforcer. A session was divided into two parts, the positions of the schedules being reversed from one part to the next. Each half of the session consisted of 4 forced-choice trials followed by 20 free-choice trials. The contingencies were the same on both types of trials but for the forcedchoice trials participants were instructed to press the keys in a certain order on the first 4 trials: left, right, left, right. Choice proportions were based on the 20 free-choice trials and were calculated by dividing the number of choices for the immediate, small reinforcer by 20. The choice proportion in the second half of Session 1 was used to categorize a participant's performance as impulsive (.70 or more), self-controlled (.30 or less), or "not determined" ( ). This categorization determined the type of instructions presented during Session 2. Instructions. At the beginning of the first session, the participants were read instructions stating that the session would be divided into two parts, each lasting about 40 min. A description was given of the basic sequence of events on a trial and the possible ways in which the outcomes of pressing the two keys could differ: The disk you press may affect how long you will wait before the tape starts. It may also affect how long the tape will play before it is interrupted. The above statement was presented twice in an effort to increase schedule control. During the second session the instructions varied depending on the instructional condition that was in effect-contrary, Consistent, or Elaborate Contrary Instructions-and the participant's categorization as impulsive or self-controlled (participants categorized as not determined received the same instructions as the self-controlled participants but their data were not formally analyzed and are not discussed further). Under contrary instructions, the impulsive participants were read the following statement at the beginning of Part 1: The procedure is the same as last time. The first time, press left; then press right; then left again; then right again. Then press whichever disk you prefer. In this part of the session, the tape will play for a longer period of time if you press the disk on the [side]. In the elaborate contrary condition, the following sentences were added to the end of the above statement: Specifically, it will play for 25 seconds. If you press the disk on the other side, the tape will only play for 15 seconds.

5 IMPULSIVE CHOICE 553 At the beginning of Part 2, the following statement was read in both the contrary and elaborate contrary conditions (instructions related to pressing designated keys on forced-choice trials were presented to all participants in both parts of Session 2 but will be deleted from the method section from this point on): In this part of the session, the tape will play for a longer period of time if you press the disk on the [side]. Under contrary instructions, the self-controlled participants received the following instructions in Part 1 : In this part of the session, the tape will start sooner if you press the disk on the [side]. Under elaborate contrary instructions, the following sentences were added to the end of the above statement: Specifically, it will start immediately. If you press the disk on the other side, you will have to wait 55 seconds before the tape starts. In Part 2, the instructions for both the contrary and elaborate contrary conditions were: In this part of the session, the tape will start sooner if you press the disk on the [side]. In the consistent condition, the instructions were the same as in the contrary condition but the recipients were reversed: Impulsive participants were told which key caused the tape to start sooner and self-controlled participants were told which key caused the tape to play for a longer period of a time. Results The effects on choice of contrary and consistent instructions are illustrated in Figure 1. The graph shows the mean choice proportions for the immediate, small reinforcer among impulsive and self-controlled participants in the second half of Session 1 (open bars) and in both halves of Session 2 combined (shaded bars). For impulsive participants, contrary instructions produced a sharp decrease in impulsive choice from.88 in Session 1 to.48 in Session 2, a significant effect according to a Wilcoxon test (T = 0, N = 11, P <.01 ; all tests were two-tailed). For the 4 self-controlled participants, there was no appreciable change in preference (the slight increase was not tested statistically because of the small sample size). Under consistent instructions, impulsive participants maintained their preference for the immediate, small reinforcer across both sessions. A Wilcoxon test indicated that the slight decrease from.85

6 554 NAVARICK 1 1 I.. '- 0.9 i 0.88 r r G) ~ 0.8 Contrary Instructions in r- 5.2 j Session 2.- c 0.7 1:: Consistent Instructions o.- G) I 0 in Session 2 Q.D::: 0.6 Session 1 0=.. IV o 0.48 Q. E 0.5,... Btl) I 0.4 '0 Gi Session2 J:7\i 0'- 0.3 cog II! IV E 0.2 I :1.5 I 0.1 n 1.J n I D 0 i n Impulsive Self-Controlled Impulsive Self-Controlled Subject Classification (from Session 1) Figure 1. Mean choice proportions for the immediate, small reinforcer in impulsive and selfcontrolled participants under contrary and consistent instructions (left and right panels, respectively). Open bars represent choice proportions from the second half of Session 1. Shaded bars represent the average of choice proportions from both parts of Session 2. to.81 was not significant (T = 17, N = 10, p>.05). The choice proportion in Session 2 under consistent instructions was Significantly higher than that for impulsive participants under contrary instructions according to a Mann-Whitney test (U = 18, N1 = 10, N2 = 11, P <.02), indicating that the content of the instructions, and not simply the additional exposure to the schedules in Session 2, was responsible for the observed decrease in impulsivity. The 5 self-controlled participants who received consistent instructions also showed virtually no change in preference from Session 1 to Session 2. Individual choice proportions in the contrary and consistent conditions are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Genders of the participants are listed in the leftmost column together with the participants' stated hand preference, a factor which could have produced a bias favoring the schedule on the preferred side. The sides on which the schedules were presented were varied across successive halves of the sessions as follows: In Session 1, the immediate, small reinforcer was initially presented on the nonpreferred side and then the preferred side; in Session 2, the immediate, small reinforcer was initially on the preferred side (to facilitate generalization from the schedules in the previous session) and then the nonpreferred side. In the rightmost column the tables present the intersession intervals, the number of days by which the second session followed the first.

7 IMPULSIVE CHOICE 555 Table 1 Individual Choice Proportions for Immediate, Small Reinforcer for Impulsive and Self-Controlled Subjects under Contrary Instructions Session 1 Session 2 Intersession Subject,' Classi- Instruc- Classi- Classi- interval gender 1 st half 2 nd half fication tion 1 st half fication 2 nd half fication (days) Impulsive subjects F Amount.60 N.65 N 7 2 M Amount.10 S.05 S 21 3 F Amount.15 S.15 S 13 4 ML Amount.50 N.50 N 7 5 F Amount F Amount.65 N.45 N 7 7 F Amount.50 N.40 N 7 8 F Amount.65 N.20 S 7 9 M Amount.60 N F Amount.85 I.40 N F Amount.65 N.10 S FL Discontinued participation MEAN" Self-controlled subjects 13 F S Immediacy.05 S.00 S 7 14 F S Immediacy.05 S.00 S 7 15 F S Immediacy.35 N.35 N F S Immediacy.05 S.00 S 2 17 F S Discontinued participation MEAN" Note. N = 23; data for 6 subjects classified as not-determined are not shown. 'All subjects were right-handed except those indicated by an L. " Excludes subject who completed only Session 1. After presentation of the contrary instructions, very few impulsive participants showed self-control; most became indifferent between schedules. Of the 11 impulsive participants listed in Table 1, only 2 met the criterion for self-control (a choice proportion of.30 or less) in both halves of Session 2. Eight participants were classified as not-determined in one or both parts of the session and 1 met the criterion for impulsivity in both parts. In contrast, when the instructions were consistent with the participants' previous preferences (Table 2), 6 of the 10 impulsive participants continued to exhibit impulsivity in both halves of Session 2 and none exhibited self-control. The contrary instructions reduced control by immediacy of reinforcement but failed to produce reliable control by amount of reinforcement.

8 556 NAVARICK Table 2 Individual Choice Proportions for Immediate, Small Reinforcer for Impulsive and Self-Controlled Subjects under Consistent Instructions Session 1 Session 2 Intersession Subject,' Classi- Instruc- Classi- Classi- interval gender 1 st half 2 nd half fication tion 1 st half fication 2 nd half fication (days) Impulsive subjects 18 F Immediacy M Immediacy.50 N F Immediacy.65 N.55 N 3 21 F Immediacy M Immediacy F Immediacy.35 N F Immediacy M Immediacy F Immediacy 1.00 I F Immediacy.45 N.50 N 2 28 M Discontinued participation MEAN" Self-controlled subjects 29 F S Amount.10 S.30 S 4 30 M S Amount.00 S.00 S 9 31 M S Amount.00 S.05 S 5 32 ML S Amount.00 S.00 S 2 33 M S Amount.15 S.10 S 5 34 M S Discontinued participation MEAN" Note. N = 31 ; data for 14 subjects classified as not-determined are not shown. ' All subjects were right-handed except those indicated by an L. " Mean excludes subject who completed only first session. There were indications that the elaborate contrary instructions further reduced impulsive choice but statistically this condition was no more effective than the simpler instructions. Figure 2 presents the mean choice proportions in Sessions 1 and 2 for impulsive and self-controlled participants who received the elaborate contrary instructions. Among impulsive participants, preference for the immediate, small reinforcer dropped from.92 in Session 1 to.34 in Session 2, a significant effect on a Wilcoxon test (T = 0, N = 12, P <.01) and a greater decrease than that produced by the Simpler instructions. However, the choice proportion in Session 2 was still significantly higher than that of self-controlled participants (.07) based on a Mann-Whitney test (U = 3.5, N1 = 9, N2 = 13, P <.002), and it did not differ significantly from that of impulsive

9 IMPULSIVE CHOICE 557 ~ ~.2 u CD ~ c: c: o CD c.d:: 0 ~ -as Il. E CD U) U.-...'" 0 CD. : ~.- as 0.- c: "C CD as E CD :E E Elaborate, Contrary Instructions in Session 2 D Session Session Impulsive Self-Controlled Subject Classification (from Sess ion 1) Figure 2. Mean choice proportions for the immediate, small reinforcer in impulsive and selfcontrolled participants under elaborate contrary instructions. Open bars represent choice proportions from the second half of Session 1. Shaded bars represent the average of choice proportions from both parts of Session 2. participants who received the simpler contrary instructions (U = 44.5, N1 = 11, N2 = 13, p>.05). Among self-controlled participants, there was virtually no change in preference from Session 1 to Session 2. Fortuitously, a sufficient number of subjects (9) was obtained to conduct a Wilcoxon test, and it showed that there was no Significant difference (T = 10.5, N = 7-not 9 due to 2 cases of equal scores in Sessions 1 and 2-, p>.05). Thus, whereas choice in impulsive participants was modifiable by elaborate biasing instructions, choice in self-controlled participants was not.

10 558 NAVARICK Table 3 presents the individual choice proportions of participants in the elaborate contrary condition. An indication that the elaborate instructions were partially effective in producing self-control is that 6 of the 13 impulsive participants showed self-control in both parts of Session Table 3 Individual Choice Proportions for Immediate, Small Reinforcer for Impulsive and Self-Controlled Subjects under Elaborate, Contrary Instructions Session 1 Session 2 Intersession Subject,' Classi Instruc Classi Classi interval gender 1 st half 2 nd hall lication tion 1 st hall lication 2 nd hall lication (days) Impulsive subjects 35 F Amount.25 S.30 S 2 36 F Amount.20 S.00 S 2 37 F Amount.30 S.05 S M Amount F Amount.15 S.05 S 4 40 M Amount.55 N.15 S 3 41 F Amount.05 S.00 S 5 42 M Amount.65 N.85 I 5 43 F Amount.05 S.00 S M Amount M Amount.35 N.40 N F Amount.95 I.95 I F Amount.30 S.35 N 2 MEAW' Self-controlled subjects 48 F S Immediacy.05 S.70 I 5 49 M S Immediacy.00 S.00 S FL S Immediacy.10 S.15 S F S Immediacy.05 S.00 S 9 52 F S Immediacy.00 S.00 S 2 53 F S Immediacy.00 S.00 S 7 54 M S Immediacy.05 S.00 S 4 55 F S Immediacy.00 S.00 S 7 56 F S Immediacy.00 S.10 S 2 57 F S Discontinued participation 58 M S Discontinued participation MEAN Note. N = 33; data for 9 subjects classified as not-determined are not shown. ' All subjects were right-handed except those indicated by an L. " Mean excludes subject who completed only first session.

11 IMPULSIVE CHOICE as compared to only 2 of 11 who received the simpler instructions (Table 1). In contrast, 8 of 9 self-controlled participants continued to show self-control in both parts of Session 2, and none showed impulsivity in both parts, even after being told how much more quickly they would receive reinforcement on the nonpreferred schedule. Impulsive and selfcontrolled participants clearly differed in their susceptibility to messages designed to alter their choices. Discussion The central findings of this experiment may be summarized as follows. First, impulsive choice was significantly reduced by presenting a single sentence stating that the nonpreferred schedule offered a larger amount of reinforcement than the preferred schedule. However, these instructions were not sufficient to produce predominantly self-controlled choice. Second, presenting additional numerical information about the reinforcers was statistically no more effective than presenting the simpler statement, but almost half the participants showed consistent self-control after the numerical instructions were given. Third, participants classified as impulsive or self-controlled based on performance in the first session differed strikingly in their susceptibility to biasing instructions in the second session: Impulsive participants' choices were modified by these instructions but self-controlled participants' choices were not. The findings provide partial support for the discrimination hypothesis in that accentuating the difference between reinforcer durations with verbal information reduced the frequency of impulsive choices. Associating these durations with specific numbers seemed to be particularly effective for some participants. The reduction in impulsive choice may also have been caused partly by compliance with an implied request in the instructions to choose the larger reinforcer. Compliance can be disentangled from discrimination by presenting instructions that characterize one alternative as better than the other without providing specific information about the parameter to which the participant was insensitive. For example, the instructions could state, "The viewing conditions will be better if you press the disk on the left." If choice shifted to that schedule, the factor responsible would be compliance with an implied request to choose that schedule rather than enhanced discrimination between the parameter values. What stands out most from the present findings is the persistence of impulsive choice despite instructions that should have facilitated selfcontrol through the processes of discrimination and/or compliance. The results implicate the involvement of additional processes. In personality research, impulsivity is seen as an enduring characteristic of the individual (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978). In behavioral research, it is viewed as the outcome of a process of "delay discounting" whereby the effectiveness of a reinforcer is reduced as a function of its temporal distance from a response (Bickel, Odum, & Madden, 1999;

12 560 NAVARICK Navarick & Fantino, 1976). The two views may be combined by assuming that individuals differ in the rates at which they discount the value of future reinforcers. The utility of combining conceptualizations from personality and behavioral research is illustrated by the study by Bickel et al. on the discounting rates of current, never, and ex-smokers for monetary reinforcers. Using questionnaire techniques, they found that never and exsmokers had equal discounting rates that were lower than the rates of current smokers. This finding supported theories of cigarette smoking (and drug dependence generally) that view smoking as a form of impulsive choice in which immediate drug effects are preferred to the delayed benefits associated with abstinence. Among current smokers, discounting rates were distributed bimodally. Bickel et al. suggested that current smokers who had relatively low discounting rates may be those most likely to become ex-smokers. In more general terms, the suggestion is that the success of efforts to modify impulsive choice may depend on the individual's preexisting discounting rate. By analogy, impulsive participants in the present study may have had higher discounting rates than the self-controlled participants. The persistence of impulsive choice despite efforts to modify, it instructionally may be akin to the persistence of smoking among individuals who have been repeatedly exposed to messages pointing to the benefits of not smoking. The resistance of the self-controlled participants to biasing instructions emphasizing immediacy of reinforcement is readily explained in terms of a relatively low discounting rate for the delayed reinforcer. In any event, the fact that impulsive and self-controlled participants differed so clearly in susceptibility to biasing instructions demonstrates the predictive value of the criteria used to apply these classifications in the first session. More generally, the results demonstrate the utility of treating individual differences as a manipulable variable in behavioral research on impulsivity. References BICKEL, W. K., ODUM, A. L., & MADDEN, G. J. (1999). Impulsivity and cigarette smoking: Delay discounting in current, never, and ex-smokers. Psychopharmacology, 146, EYSENCK, S. B. B., & EYSENCK, H. J. (1978). Impulsiveness and venturesomeness: Their position in a dimensional system of personality description. Psychological Reports, 43, NAVARICK, D. J. (1996). Choice in humans: Techniques for enhancing sensitivity to reinforcement immediacy. The Psychological Record, 46, NAVARICK, D. J. (1998). Impulsive choice in adults: How consistent are individual differences? The Psychological Record, 48, NAVARICK, D. J., & FANTINO, E. (1976). Self-control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 2,

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