Stressors, Coping, and Coping Effectiveness Among Professional Rugby Union Players
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- Stewart Hensley
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1 The Sport Psychologist, 2006, 20, Human Kinetics, Inc. Stressors, Coping, and Coping Effectiveness Among Professional Rugby Union Players Adam R. Nicholls Leeds Metropolitan University Nicholas L. Holt The University Alberta Remco C.J. Polman and Jonny Bloomfield The University of Hull The overall purpose of this study was to examine stressors, coping strategies, and perceived coping effectiveness among professional rugby union players. Eight first class professional male rugby union players maintained diaries over a 28-day period. The diaries included a stressor checklist, an open-ended coping response section, and a Likert-type scale evaluation of coping effectiveness. Total reported stressors and coping strategies were tallied and analyzed longitudinally. The most frequently cited stressors were injury concerns, mental errors, and physical errors. The most frequently cited coping strategies were increased concentration, blocking, positive reappraisal, and being focused on the task. The most effective coping strategies were focusing on task and increasing effort. Professional rugby players use a variety of different coping strategies in order to manage the stressors they experience, but the effectiveness of their coping attempts can vary. In the 1996/97 season rugby union in the United Kingdom and Ireland became a professional sport. Professionalization changed the nature of the demands facing rugby players. For example, the incidence of injuries doubled between 1993/94 and 1997/98 (Garraway, Lee, Hutton, Russell, & McLeod, 2000). As the demands on professional rugby union players have increased, there has been a growth in sport science research and support in the game. Rugby union has benefited from research in applied physiology and game analysis (e.g., Duthie, Pyne, & Hooper, 2003), position-specific performance indicators (e.g., James, Mellalieu, & Jones, Adam R. Nicholls is a Research Fellow with the Carnegie Research Institute, Leeds Metropolitan University, Fairfax Hall, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK. Nicholas L. Holt is an Assistant Professor with the Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6E 2H9, Canada. Remco C.J. Polman is a Lecturer and Jonny Bloomfield a strength and conditioning coach, and both are with the Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, The University of Hull, North Humberside, HU6 7RX, UK. A.R.Nicholls@leedsmet.ac.uk 314
2 Stressors and Coping ), and experiences of pain and injury (Howe, 2001). These developments reflect the changing demands on professional rugby union players and the role of sport scientists in performance enhancement; however, little is known about this group of athletes in terms of stress and coping. Indeed, researchers such as Noblet, Rodwell, and McWilliams (2003) have acknowledged that professional athletes in general have been widely ignored in the sport psychology stress and coping literature. This is somewhat surprising as it would appear that professional athletes could benefit the most from theory driven applied practice due to the vast number of stressors they could potentially experience. Professional Australian rules football players reported experiencing a variety of performance-related stressors including concerns about injury, performance, training, and negative teammate relationships (Noblet & Gifford, 2002; Noblet et al., 2003). An interview study of 28 professional rugby league players (Anshel, 2001) showed that the most frequently reported stressors were making a physical error, an opponent cheating, refereeʼs decision, and experiencing pain. Athletes participating in professional sport must cope with the stressors they experience in order to sustain high levels of performance (cf. Lazarus, 2000a) and maintain their professional status. Coping is an ongoing process and includes all consciously and deliberately executed attempts to manage appraised demands (Lazarus, 1999). Coping responses deployed to manage threatening or harmful events involve cognitive, affective, and behavioral efforts to manage specific internal and external stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Specific coping strategies have been categorized into three broad higher-order functions: problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance coping (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001). Problem-focused coping involves strategies to manage or alter the problem (e.g., planning, information seeking, suppression of competing behavior, or increasing efforts). Emotion-focused coping involves regulating emotional responses resulting from a stressor (e.g., mental withdrawal, behavioral withdrawal, denial, relaxation, self-blame, avoidance, acceptance, and wishful thinking). Avoidance coping consists of behavioral (e.g., walking away a from stressful situation) or psychological (e.g., blocking) efforts to disengage from a stressful situation (Krohne, 1993). Folkman and Moskowitz (2004) suggested that the underlying motivation for studying coping is the belief that some forms of coping will be more effective than others in promoting emotional well-being and that such information could be used to design coping interventions. The manner in which coping has been defined involves a fundamental distinction between coping efforts and coping effectiveness. Even though a person may deploy a coping strategy, it does not automatically follow that negative emotions related to the perceived stressor will be alleviated and that the strategy is therefore effective (Nicholls & Polman, in press). Coping effectiveness is particularly important in sport because athletes must be able to effectively manage a range of competitive stressors (Dugdale, Eklund, & Gordon, 2002; Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medberry, & Peterson, 1999). Despite its potential from an applied perspective, coping effectiveness in sport has not been extensively examined (Nicholls, Holt, & Polman, 2005; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1998), probably because it is one of the most difficult areas of coping research due to issues associated with its measurement (Lazarus, 2000b; Somerfield & McCrae, 2000). Nicholls, Holt, and Polman (2005) examined coping effectiveness with a sample of 18 Irish international adolescent golfers. Coping effectiveness appeared
3 316 Nicholls et al. to be related to the choice of coping strategies deployed. Strategies such as positive appraisal, blocking, and adhering to a pre-shot routine were found to be effective coping strategies. Alternatively, the golfers coped ineffectively when they hurried up, tried too hard, or made routine changes; however, a limitation of this study is that data were collected entirely via retrospective reports interviews, which may distort the accuracy of coping data (Ptacek, Smith, Espe, & Raffety, 1994). Nonetheless, the study by Nicholls and colleagues was one of the first attempts at understanding the nature and meaning of effective coping among elite athletes. In the case of the present study, we were interested in professional athletesʼ attempts at coping with short-term stressors, which is likely to be of relevance to performance-related coping research. A case study of a professional English cricket player showed that he had a range of proactive and reactive coping strategies that enabled him to cope with stressors and achieve his main performance goals, and sustain his career (Holt, 2003). Similarly, coping with stressors and being able to respond to setbacks has been associated with young professional soccer playersʼ attempts at pursuing a career (Holt & Dunn, 2004). The findings of these studies suggest that coping is relevant and important in professional sport, but they did not assess the notion of coping effectiveness so their potential to provide guidelines to practitioners is limited. Measurement Considerations Tennen and Affleck (1996) argued that there is a gap between process-oriented theories of coping and the empirical literature meant to evaluate them, because researchers rarely employ process-oriented research designs. Longitudinal research is conceptually coherent with process-oriented theories of coping and such designs can help establish processes of change associated with stressors and coping over time (Crocker, Kowalski, & Graham, 1998; Lazarus, 1999, 2000b; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). One longitudinal approach to coping research that has been widely used in health/general psychology involves the use of daily diaries (Porter & Stone, 1996). Indeed, results from studies using daily end-of-day reports of coping (e.g., Ptacek et al., 1994) have called into question the validity of coping recalled over 5- and 12-day periods. Specifically, Ptacek et al. demonstrated 26% variance between daily and weekly reports of coping. Therefore, regular end-of-day assessments of coping in professional sport may provide a more accurate account of how athletes actually coped with stressors than relying on retrospective recall over longer periods. The present study builds on the work of Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James (2005), who used a diary approach to examine fluctuations in appraised stressors and coping strategies among 11 Welsh international adolescent golfers over a 31- day period. Although previous research has shown that elite athletes can report a vast array of stressors during their career (e.g., Gould, Finch, & Jackson, 1993), Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James found that four stressors (physical error, mental error, opponents playing well, and weather) comprised over 75% of all stressors reported across the 31 days of the study. Fluctuations in the frequency by which stressors were reported coincided with the relative importance of the golf competitions played, which suggested that stressors were related to athletesʼ
4 Stressors and Coping 317 goal commitments (Lazarus, 1999). Problem-focused coping strategies were cited more frequently than emotion-focused or avoidance coping, which was consistent with previous findings (Crocker & Isaak, 1997; Gaudreau, Blondin, & Lapierre, 2002; Gaudreau, Lapierre, & Blondin, 2001). Blocking was the most-frequently cited specific coping response. This study revealed descriptive information about changes in stressors in coping, but it was limited by a small and homogeneous sample and replication is required to establish more about the generalizability of findings across other athletic populations. In summary, based on the Lazarus (1999) conceptualization of coping, we wished to examine the nature of the coping process in professional sport. We expanded on Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and Jamesʼs (2005) study by sampling a group of professional adult athletes, and we sought to examine the notion of coping effectiveness over time. Thus, the overall purpose of this study was to examine stressors, coping strategies, and perceived coping effectiveness among professional rugby union players. Specifically, the first objective was to establish the frequency by which stressors were reported by professional rugby players over a 28-day period. The second objective was to identify the coping strategies they used to manage these stressors. The final objective was to establish participantsʼ subjective evaluations of the effectiveness of their coping attempts. Participants Method The final sample was comprised of eight first class Caucasian male professional rugby union players aged between 21 and 28 years (M age = 24.6 years, SD = 2.2). All players played on the first team with a leading European rugby club, which was a former winner of the Heineken Cup. Four participants were full internationals (three with Ireland and one with New Zealand) and the remaining players had represented Ireland at A level (i.e., the international second team). There were four forwards (flanker, hooker, prop, and a number 8) and four backs (two centers, full back, and a scrum half). Procedure Participants were sent a letter detailing the nature of the study, and those who wanted to take part returned a consent form to the leading author. Twenty members of the 42-player squad initially agreed to participate. All participants received a package of 28 diary sheets (dated October 18th 2004 through November 14th 2004), instructions, and one example of a completed diary sheet. The participants were asked to complete the appropriately dated diary sheet on the evening of each day they played rugby (either competitively or in practice). They were not required to complete the diary on days when they did not play (i.e., rest days or travel days). The fourth author was the strength and conditioning coach for the team, and because he was with the team on a daily basis, he was able to answer any procedural questions. Initially 20 players agreed to participate, but we had a dropout rate of 60%, so 8 complete diaries were included in the analysis.
5 318 Nicholls et al. 28-Day Competitive Period Data were collected between Monday, the 18th of October 2004 to Sunday, the 14th of November During this 28-day competitive period, the participants had 11 team training sessions and four matches (similar to American football, rugby players generally only play one game per week due to the highly physical nature of the game). Each game was preceded by three training sessions: one technical (i.e., skill-based), one full contact, and one tactical/set pieces session. In addition to the team training sessions, some of the players did their own individual training (e.g., strength conditioning, cardiovascular conditioning, and additional skills practice). During days 1-7 of the study, the participants practiced on three occasions and played their first pool match of the Heineken Cup, the most prestigious competition for the top 24 European professional rugby clubs. During days 8-14 of the study, the participants trained on three occasions and played their second pool match of the Heineken Cup. During days 15-21, there were three training sessions and a home match in the Celtic league, which consists of 11 professional rugby teams from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland. During the final part of the study (days 22-28), the participants completed two training sessions and played an away match in the Celtic league. Data Collection Daily Diary. The daily diary was adapted from the measure used by Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James (2005), with a Likert-type scale added to measure coping effectiveness (following Kim & Duda, 2003). The diary consisted of three discrete sections: (a) stressor checklist and open-ended stressor boxes, (b) open-ended coping responses section, and (c) perceived coping effectiveness Likert-type scale. The checklist included the following categories: making a physical error, making a mental error, being criticized by coach, observing an opponent cheat, sustaining injury, receiving a wrong call from an official, observing an opponent perform well, difficult weather conditions, and being distracted by the crowd or someone watching. The stressor checklist was originally used by Anshel (1996), who reported a goodness-of-fit index of.87, with alphas for each stressor ranging from.81 to.92. In addition to the nine checklist stressor categories, there were also two blank boxes where the players could report any stressors they experienced that were not on the list. The structured part of the checklist (i.e., the nine categories) facilitated comparison of stressors across participants, whereas the unstructured part of the checklist (i.e., the open boxes) provided opportunities for players to report unique stressors that they had experienced. Furthermore, because the checklist had previously been used, we had some confidence that the stressors listed would reflect the majority of stressors the players experienced. The open-ended coping response section required the participants to write what they did to manage each of the stressors they had marked on the checklist, or in the open-ended stressor boxes. This section was unstructured and participants were free to write whatever coping strategies they attempted to use. The third section of the diary sheet required the participants to rate how effective each of their coping responses were in managing the reported stressors on a 5-point Likert-type scale with 1 being not effective and 5 being very effective coping (Pensgaard & Duda, 2003).
6 Stressors and Coping 319 Data Analysis Stressors. Frequencies from the nine categories on the checklists, plus additional stressors indicated via the open-ended responses were calculated. The open-ended responses were coded into categories by the first author, and verified by the other authors. For instance, not making the team was classified as a Team selection stressor. Data for the three most reported stressors were also analyzed longitudinally (following Nicholls, Holt, Polman, & James, 2005; Udry, 1997) by creating four time periods of 7 days (days 1-7, 8-14, 15-21, 22-28). The frequencies by which injury, mental error, and physical error stressors were reported in each of the four time periods were tallied and then divided by 8 (number of participants) to produce mean scores for each time period. Coping. Written data in the open-ended coping responses section were transcribed verbatim and subjected to an inductive content analysis procedure (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994) by the lead author. Similar coping strategies were grouped together as first-order themes and assigned a descriptive label and a rule of inclusion was written for each theme. Similar first-order themes were grouped under more abstract labels as second-order themes (e.g., changed technique was assigned the rule of inclusion refers to players changing technique to cope and coded in the second-order theme of Technique-oriented Coping ). Second-order themes were then deductively classified according to the coping function that they were apparently intended to serve using the dimensions of problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance coping that have been recommended in the literature (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001). The first author initially classified the data, before the coding was reviewed by the second author. There were numerous disagreements about coding, most of which related to repetition of themes when data could have been collapsed into a single theme. Eventually, following extensive discussions, the final coding scheme was agreed upon. All of the coping strategies were categorized into 35 discrete first-order themes, and the frequencies by which each theme was cited were tallied. To produce longitudinal mean coping function scores reported by each participant for four time periods, the number of coping first-order themes in the three coping functions were tallied across the sample during each time period and then divided by the number of participants in the study (8), and standard deviations were calculated across the participants for each specific time period. Coping Effectiveness. The final analytic technique was designed to provide an indication of the effectiveness of coping strategies deployed to manage the most frequently-cited stressors. The number of times each coping theme was used to manage injury stressors, mental errors, and physical errors were tallied for the whole sample over 28-days. The coping effectiveness of each strategy in relation to each stressor was calculated and then divided by the frequency of coping themes reported for managing the particular stressor. This generated a mean coping effectiveness score for each coping strategy in relation to the stressor it was used to manage. For instance, blocked (i.e., blocking) to manage injury stressors was reported on eight occasions and had a mean coping effectiveness of 2.2, based on the 5-point Likerttype scale. In order to establish coping effectiveness longitudinally, the perceived coping effectiveness ratings of each coping strategy used by all of the participants were tallied and divided by the number of deployed coping strategies used during
7 320 Nicholls et al. each period. This process generated a mean effectiveness score for all the coping strategies across all of the participants in each time period. Results Participants played rugby on 133 of the 224 total available days. On average, rugby was played for 16.6 days per person, (SD = 3.3 days). From the 133 daily diaries received, participants reported 195 performance-related stressors and 251 coping responses. Stressors. Although 24 different stressors were reported, nine categories accounted for 79% of stressors (Table 1), and 44% of stressors were accounted for by the three most-cited categories of injury (cited 35 times), mental error (28), and physical error (22). As Figure 1 shows, overall there was a general decline in the frequency by which these three main stressors were cited as the season progressed. There were also fluctuations in the relative frequencies by which the stressors were Table 1 Classification and Total Number of Stressors Reported Over 28 days Stressors reported during matches and training Frequency Injury 35 Mental error 28 Physical error 22 Performance/outcome 19 Training 13 Coach/player criticism 10 Weather 9 Fatigue 9 Off field stressors 9 Official 7 Opponent cheat 7 Team tactics 5 Opponent play well 4 Crowd 4 Negative team atmosphere 3 Being late/unprepared for start of match after pre-match warm up 2 Team selection 2 Letting family down 1 Being substituted 1 Poor communication 1 Having to work on a Saturday 1 Team mistakes 1 Thoughts of match press conference 1 Letting teammates down 1
8 Stressors and Coping 321 Total number of stressors Injury Mental error Physical error Days Figure 1 Stressors reported by 8 professional rugby players over 28 days. cited over the four time periods. For example, injury was most-frequently cited in two of the four time periods, and mental error was cited more frequently than physical error in two of the four time periods, which suggests that stressors fluctuated. Coping. Increased concentration on task was the most frequently-cited single response (cited 71 times; see Table 2), followed by blocked (33), increased effort (24), and positive reappraisal (22). Considering coping at the functional level, problem-focused coping strategies were used most frequently (cited 176 times, representing 70% of all reported coping strategies), emotion-focused coping strategies were used 35 times (14%), and avoidance coping strategies were used 40 times (16%). Over time (Figure 2), problem-focused coping was cited at least twice as many times as either emotion-focused or avoidance coping in each of the four time periods. Problem-focused and avoidance coping declined with each time period. Alternatively, emotion-focused coping peaked in the middle two time periods (i.e., days 8-14 and 15-21). Coping Effectiveness. Relatively few specific strategies received high effectiveness evaluations. For example, of the coping strategies cited more than 10 times, only increased effort (4.1) was evaluated as being more effective than 4 out of 5. Alternatively, the coping strategies used most frequently across the 28-day period received relatively low evaluations. For example, increased concentration on task was cited 71 times and received a mean effectiveness rating of 3.8. Blocked was cited 33 times and received a mean effectiveness rating of 3.4, and positive reappraisal was cited 22 times and received a mean effectiveness rating of 3.5. Therefore, strategies cited most often were not the most effective strategies. Figure 2 indicates that mean coping effectiveness remained relatively stable over the four time periods. It started at 3.5 and steadily decreased over the next two periods, but then increased slightly in period four to 3.4.
9 322 Nicholls et al. Table 2 Classification and Frequencies of Coping Responses Over 28 Days Second- First Mean Coping order order coping function theme theme Frequency effectiveness Problem- Technique- Changed focused oriented technique coping coping Adapted to conditions Practiced 1 3 Concentration Increased concentration on task Focused on getting fit Prepared 1 3 mentally Increased mental 1 1 awareness of reasons for errors Changed Increased effort Behaviors Reduced injury symptoms Warmed up Played through injury Tried to get a touch 1 3 as soon as possible Took revenge 1 5 Communication Argued Apologized 3 1 Increased communication Kept quiet Used Humor 1 5 Implemented advice 1 3 Planning Gathered information on performance Thought about next 4 3 game Revised play book 2 3 Evaluated weaknesses 2 4 Corrected error in preparation for next tackle Did not eat before match 1 2 (continued)
10 Stressors and Coping 323 Second- First Mean Coping order order coping function theme theme Frequency effectiveness Emotion- Relaxation Relaxed focused techniques Visualized 2 4 coping Acceptance Positive reappraisal Trusted teammates Put things into perspective 3 3 Blame Blamed injury 2 3 Avoidance Cognitive Blocked coping avoidance Thought stopping Behavioral Pulled out 1 4 avoidance Lack of No coping Nothing coping Mean number Problem-focused Emotion-focused Avoidance Coping effectiveness Days Figure 2 Mean and standard deviation scores for coping strategies (classified by coping function) reported by 8 professional rugby players over 28 days.
11 324 Nicholls et al. Table 3 Coping Strategies, Frequencies, and Mean Effectiveness in Managing Three Most-Frequently Cited Stressors Mean Stressor Coping strategy Frequency effectiveness Injury Reduced symptoms of injury Warmed up Blocked Played through injury Nothing 3 1 Kept quiet 2 2 Positive reappraisal Increased effort 1 5 Focused on getting fit 1 3 Pulled out 1 4 Mental error Increased concentration on task 26 4 Increased effort 5 4 Blocked 5 3 Positive reappraisal 4 4 Thought stopping Gathered information on performance 2 2 Increased communication 2 4 Trusted teammates 1 3 Tried to get a touch as soon as possible 1 3 Revised play book 1 4 Relaxed 1 3 Physical error Increased concentration on task Gathered information on performance 5 4 Increased effort 5 4 Blocked 3 4 Positive reappraisal 2 4 Changed technique Nothing 2 2 Adapted to conditions 1 5 Corrected errors 1 1 Thought stopping 1 4 Relaxed 1 3 Connections Between Stressors and Coping Effectiveness. For the three most-frequently cited stressors (Table 3), a range of different types of coping strategies were reported. For example, 10 different categories of coping strategies were reported to deal with injury, 11 different categories of coping strategies were reported to deal with mental errors, and 11 different categories of coping strategies were reported to deal with physical errors. However, only three coping strategies (blocked, positive reappraisal, and increased effort) were used to deal with all three of the major stressors. Thus, there were differences in the playersʼ choice of coping strategies across these three stressors.
12 Stressors and Coping 325 Discussion Our first specific objective was to establish the frequency by which stressors were reported by professional rugby players over a 28-day period. The study revealed that the most frequently reported stressors were injury, mental errors, and physical errors. Retrospective interview studies (e.g., Anshel, 2001; Noblet et al., 2003) have shown that athletes can report a variety of different stressors, but diary studies have expanded on these initial findings. Although athletes may report a vast number of stressors in total, a relatively small number of stressors endure over time (Nicholls, Holt, Polman, & James, 2005). For example, our current findings revealed that although 24 different stressors were reported, the top-three categories accounted for 44% of stressors reported over the 28-day period. This finding is similar to the results of Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and Jamesʼs diary study, which showed that four stressors comprised over 75% of all stressors reported across 11 adolescent golfers over 31 days. One applied implication here is that practitioners would be advised to monitor athletesʼ stressors over time, as well as asking them to reflect upon stressors (Nicholls, Holt, & Polman, 2005). A longitudinal approach to assessing stressors in applied settings may reveal more accurate information that may identify temporal stressor patterns in relation to matches, which will help direct interventions. In the current study, the top three stressors reported by rugby players were injury, mental error, and physical error. The top three stressors reported by golfers in the study by Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James (2005) were physical error, mental error, and opponent playing well. Whereas physical and mental errors were consistent stressors between golf and rugby, the other stressors may be a reflection of the different demands of the sport. The physical nature of rugby elevates potential injury risks, especially among professional players (Garraway et al., 2000). Injury or pain have previously been cited as salient concerns in the similar professional sports of Australian rules football (Noblet et al., 2003) and rugby league (Anshel, 2001). Although speculative, it may be that there are some subtle but important differences in the stressors athletes experience across different sports and even in professional and amateur versions of the same sport. These contextual factors are likely to have implications for the practitioner in terms of coping skills that may be taught. Overall, the number of stressors declined as the 28-day period progressed. The most stressors were reported in the first period, declined in period two, remained constant in period three, and declined in the last period. This coincided with the two more important Heineken Cup European matches. In contrast, fewer stressors were reported overall in time periods involving Celtic League games. This finding mirrors Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James (2005), who found that adolescent golfers reported more stressors during the most important competitions of the season. It is plausible that these important competitions represent times of peak goal commitment. When important goals to which athletes are committed become placed under threat, increased stress is likely to occur (Lazarus, 1999). Although these relations are purely observational based on the current data, future research that assesses the interaction of competition importance (or goal commitment) and stress would make a valuable addition to the literature. On the applied level, mental error stressors were highest during the first and second time period, which included two
13 326 Nicholls et al. of the Heineken Cup matches. This suggests that sport psychology practitioners could be particularly effective during important competitive periods. The second objective was to identify the coping strategies used by professional rugby players to manage the stressors they experience. Players reported the use of 61 different coping strategies, with the most frequently cited strategies being concentration on task, blocking, increased effort, and positive reappraisal. The highest frequency of coping strategies coincided with the period when the most stressors were reported (i.e., days 1-7, and 8-14), which is consistent with the findings of Nicholls, Holt, Polman, and James (2005). It stands to reason that more coping is required when an athlete experiences a greater number of stressors. From an applied perspective, practitioners should encourage their clients to make frequent coping attempts during particularly stressful periods. Strategies that were classified as serving a problem-focused coping function were cited more frequently than those serving emotion-focused or avoidance coping functions. These findings are consistent with previous research (Crocker & Isaak, 1997; Gaudreau et al., 2001, 2002; Nicholls, Holt, Polman, & James, 2005). From a theoretical perspective, the goodness-of-fit explanation (Folkman, 1992) suggests that when confronted with a controllable stressor, people should deploy problem-focused coping strategies. The logic here is that because the stressor is controllable, a strategy designed to directly influence or alleviate the stressor would be most effective. In contrast, when confronted with an uncontrollable stressor, people should deploy emotion-focused coping strategies because coping attempts to change the stressor would be flawed (because the stressor is uncontrollable). Thus, it is likely that issues of control are central to the coping process in sport, and it could be that athletes evaluate many stressors as being at least partially controllable. Given that we did not assess control as a variable in our study, we cannot draw any firm conclusions on this issue, but future diary studies which assess controllability of stressors would represent an important research direction. In an applied sense, a key question practitioners may wish to ask athletes is to what extent can you control this stressor? and then, following the goodness-of-fit explanation, teach problem-focused coping strategies for controllable stressors and emotion-focused coping strategies for uncontrollable stressors. The final objective was to establish participantsʼ subjective evaluations of the effectiveness of their coping attempts. The overall mean effectiveness of each strategy ranged from 1 (increased mental awareness of reasons for errors and apologized) to 4.5 (changed technique and adapted to conditions; see Table 2). It would be misleading to encourage athletes to change their technique and adapt to conditions as coping strategies based upon these results, because these strategies were only reported twice. More observations would be required to attest to the efficacy of these coping strategies. Of the coping strategies used more than twenty times, increased effort was reported as being the most effective (4.1), followed by increased concentration (3.8), and then positive reappraisal (3.5). In addition to the degree of fluctuation between the overall effectiveness of the different coping strategies, the same strategy to manage different stressors also fluctuated. The mean effectiveness of blocking to manage injury stressors was 2.2. The overall mean effectiveness of this strategy to manage mental errors was 3, and to manage physical errors, it was 4. This finding adds to the work of Nicholls, Holt, and Polman (2005) suggesting that the effectiveness of a coping strategy
14 Stressors and Coping 327 varies in relation to the stressor it was used to manage. One problem we faced interpreting these findings is establishing just what these subjective evaluations of coping actually mean. As Lazarus (2000b) noted, assessing coping effectiveness is a thorny issue, and our unsophisticated measure may not have tapped into the complexity of this variable. Despite this limitation, our descriptive data did reveal some information about coping effectiveness. For example, the most effective coping strategies that were used on a frequent basis were increasing concentration on task and increasing effort. The findings also showed that coping strategies reported most frequently were not evaluated as the most effective. Future research should employ longitudinal designs to assess coping effectiveness. A fairly apparent implication is that practitioners may wish to encourage athletes to employ more effective coping strategies more regularly and minimize the use of less effective coping strategies. But it might not be as simple as that, because the same coping strategy may be effective for dealing with one stressor and less effective for dealing with another stressor. Indeed, some strategies may also be more effective for different individuals and applied practitioners need to consider this among their clients. Given that a small number of stressors recur over time, we suggest that practitioners teach athletes three or four effective coping strategies that include at least one problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance strategy. This way, when faced with controllable or uncontrollable stressors, athletes always have a relatively effective coping strategy to deploy. A limitation of this study is that we had a 60% dropout rate, which is one of the complications of using longitudinal research designs (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1994). The small and homogeneous sample limits the generalizability of these findings, but there is now an emerging evidence base about coping over time in sport (cf. Nicholls, Holt, Polman, & James, 2005). A strength of the diary method employed here is that it reduces the time between the event and recall and thus minimizes distortions caused by memory (Smith, Leffingwell, & Ptacek, 1999). It is important to note that diary methods are not without their own limitations. Researchers have suggested that participants only report concrete and discrete events and fail to report ongoing and complex problems when they report their daily coping attempts (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). On the other hand, evidence shows that end-of-day reports are actually less valid than ecological momentary assessment of coping throughout the day (Stone et al., 1998). Therefore, we anticipate that diary approaches to examine coping in sport will continue to reveal important information for practitioners and researchers. We also acknowledge that ecological momentary assessment of coping represents an alternative and highly important future research direction. In conclusion, the current study suggests that professional rugby players experience a variety of stressors. The main stressors associated with the sport are related to injuries, mental errors, and physical errors. In order to cope with these stressors, professional rugby players use more problem-focused than either emotion-focused or avoidance-coping responses. The effectiveness of the coping strategies deployed varied greatly, suggesting that the coping effectiveness was not stable and could be improved. Professional rugby players should be taught to use a variety of coping strategies so they will always have some form of coping response to use that is more effective than players not attempting to cope.
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