Structure of the Cortex

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1

2 Structure of the Cortex

3 Introduction Cerebrum Cerebral cortex

4 Structure of the Cortex Glial cells ( glue cells ) Lobes Frontal lobes Parietal lobes Occipital lobes Temporal lobes

5 Structure of the Cortex

6 Structure of the Cortex

7 Functions of the Cortex

8 Motor Cortex Mapping the Motor Cortex Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions

9 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

10 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

11 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

12 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

13 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

14 Functions of the Cortex Motor Functions: Brain-Computer Interfaces

15 Sensory cortex Functions of the Cortex Sensory Functions

16 Functions of the Cortex Association Areas Association areas Frontal lobes Prefrontal cortex Phineas Gage Parietal lobes Temporal lobes

17 Areas of the Cortex In Four Mammals

18 Areas of the Cortex In Four Mammals

19 Areas of the Cortex In Four Mammals

20 Areas of the Cortex In Four Mammals

21 Areas of the Cortex In Four Mammals

22 The Brain s Plasticity

23 The Brain s Plasticity Brain Damage Plasticity Constraintinduced therapy Neurogenesis

24 Module 13: Brain Hemisphere Organization and the Biology of Consciousness

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26 Our Divided Brain

27 Our Divided Brain Splitting the Brain Vogel and Bogen Corpus-callosum Split brain Myers and Gazzaniga

28 Our Divided Brain Splitting the Brain

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41 Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain

42 Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain Hemispheric Specialization Perceptual tasks Language Sense of self Handedness

43 The Biology of Consciousness

44 The Biology of Consciousness Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience

45 The Biology of Consciousness Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind Dual Processing

46 The Biology of Consciousness Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind Two-Track Mind Visual perception track Visual action track

47 Module 14: Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences

48

49 Genes: Our Code for Life Behavior geneticist Heredity versus the environment Chromosome

50 Genes: Our Code for Life DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Genes Active (expressed) vs. inactive Genome

51 Twin and Adoption Studies

52 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical twins (monozygotic) Fraternal twins (dizygotic)

53 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

54 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

55 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

56 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

57 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

58 Twin and Adoption Studies Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

59 Twin and Adoption Studies Separated Twins U of MN studies on identical twins separated at birth Anecdotal evidence

60 Twin and Adoption Studies Biological Versus Adoptive Relatives Genetic relatives Environmental relatives

61 The New Frontier: Molecular Genetics

62 The New Frontier: Molecular Genetics Molecular genetics Molecular behavior genetics Genetics and diseases

63 Heritability

64 Heritability Heritability difference among people

65 Gene-Environmental Interaction

66 Gene-Environmental Interaction Genes and experience interact Evocative interactions Epigenetics

67 Module 15: Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature

68

69 Natural Selection and Adaptation

70 Natural Selection and Adaptation Evolutionary psychology Natural selection Mutation Adaptation Fitness

71 Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities

72 Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities Behaviors that contribute to survival are found throughout cultures

73 Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities Our Genetic Legacy Genetic traits which helped our ancestor survive may harm us today

74 Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities Evolutionary Psychology Today the Second Darwinian Revolution

75 An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality

76 An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality Gender Differences in Sexuality Studies suggesting men have a stronger tendency towards sex

77 An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality Natural Selection and Mating Preferences Differing preferences in partners Male preferences Female preferences

78 Reflections on Nature and Nurture

79 Reflections on Nature and Nurture Backward theorizing Impact of social influence

80 The End

81 Biological Psychology = the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

82 Neuron = a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

83 Dendrites = a neuron s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

84 Axon = the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

85 Myelin Sheath = a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausagelike node to the next.

86 Action Potential = a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

87 Refractory Period = a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

88 Threshold = a level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

89 All-or-None Response = a neuron s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing.

90 Synapse = the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

91 Neurotransmitters = chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

92 Reuptake = a neurotransmitter s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

93 Endorphins = morphine within natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

94 Agonist = a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response.

95 Antagonist = a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response.

96 Nervous System = the body s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

97 Central Nervous System (CNS) = the brain and spinal cord.

98 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) = the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

99 Nerves = bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

100 Sensory (afferent) Neurons = neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

101 Motor (efferent) Neurons = neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

102 Interneurons = neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

103 Somatic Nervous System = the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

104 Autonomic Nervous System = the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

105 Sympathetic Nervous System = the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

106 Parasympathetic Nervous System = the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

107 Reflex = a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response.

108 Endocrine System = the body s slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

109 Hormones = chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

110 Adrenal Glands = a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

111 Pituitary Gland = the endocrine system s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

112 Lesion = tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

113 Electroencephalogram (EEG) = an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

114 CT (computed tomography) Scan = a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain s structure. Also called CAT scan.

115 PET (positron emission tomography) Scan = a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

116 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) = a technique that used magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computergenerated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

117 fmri (functional MRI) = a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fmri scans show brain function as well as its structure.

118 Brainstem = the oldest part of central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

119 Medulla = the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

120 Thalamus = the brain s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

121 Reticular Formation = a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

122 Cerebellum = the little brain at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance, enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

123 Limbic System = doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

124 Amygdala = two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

125 Hypothalamus = a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

126 Cerebral Cortex = the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body s ultimate control and information-processing center.

127 Glial Cells = cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning and thinking.

128 Frontal Lobes = portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

129 Parietal Lobes = portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

130 Occipital Lobes = portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

131 Temporal Lobes = portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

132 Motor Cortex = an area at the read of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

133 Sensory Cortex = area at the front of parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

134 Association Areas = areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

135 Plasticity = the brain s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experince.

136 Neurogenesis = the formation of new neurons.

137 Corpus Callosum = the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

138 Split Brain = a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

139 Consciousness = our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

140 Cognitive Neuroscience = the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including percption, thinking, memory and language).

141 Dual Processing = processing the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

142 Behavior Genetics = the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

143 Environment = every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

144 Chromosomes = threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

145 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) = a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

146 Genes = the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

147 Genome = the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism s chromosomes.

148 Identical (monozygotic) Twins = twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

149 Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins = twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

150 Molecular Genetics = the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

151 Heritability = the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

152 Interaction = the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

153 Epigenetics = the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

154 Evolutionary Psychology = the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind,using principles of natural selection.

155 Natural Selection = the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

156 Mutation = the random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

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fmri (functional MRI) Lesion fmri (functional MRI) Electroencephalogram (EEG) Brainstem CT (computed tomography) Scan Medulla PET (positron emission tomography) Scan Reticular Formation MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) Thalamus

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