Chapter 5. Memory Structures and Processes. Chapter 5 Memory Processes

Transcription

1 Chapter 5 Memory Structures and Processes Chapter 5 Memory Processes 1

2 Memory The Man with the 30 Second Memory Chapter 5 Memory Processes 2

3 Are Some things Easier (Harder) to remember than others? Chapter 5 Memory Processes 3

4 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 4

5 Memory Processes -Encoding getting information into memory -Storage keeping it in memory -Retrieval getting information from memory Information Processing View Divides memory into functional stages Printer keyboard Chapter 5 Memory Processes 5

6 Modal model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) S S e t n o s r o e r y Short-Term Memory Retrieval Encoding Long-Term Memory Rehearsal Loss Chapter 5 Memory Processes 6

7 Sensory Store Sperling s Experiment (1960) Whole Report Presented Array of letters for Brief Period Subject report all letters they can recall. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 7

8 Results - recalled 33% of letters (4/12) Partial Report Brief Presentation of Array. Subjects cued to recall 1 row. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 8

9 Results If cue is immediate subject recalls 100% (4/4) If row cue delayed less letters recalled. - by 1 sec delay letters could not be recalled. To move to STM sensory information must be attended to. If not, it is quickly lost. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 9

10 Iconic (Visual) Memory Echoic (Auditory) Memory Duration 4 seconds Chapter 5 Memory Processes 10

11 Tactile Sensory Memory 5 second duration Chapter 5 Memory Processes 11

12 Two Stages of Sensory Memory Stage 1 raw, unprocessed perceptual information is stored Stage 2 perceptual information connects with Long Term memory (LTM) Chapter 5 Memory Processes 12

13 Two stages may explain differences in estimates of durations of iconic, echoic and tactile sensory memories. Visual may be measuring only stage 1, whereas echoic and tactile may include stage 2. Regardless, what does not get processed quickly fades and is unavailable to the memory system. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 13

14 Neuroscience and Sensory Memory Duration of sensory memory corresponds with activation in areas of cortex that process each modality of information. Patients with early Alzheimer s have shorter lasting sensory memories that controls. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 14

15 Short Term Working Memory (STWM) A.K.A. Primary memory, Immediate Memory, Shortterm store, Temporary Memory, Supervisory-Attention System (SAS) and Working Memory (WM) Chapter 5 Memory Processes 15

16 Short Term Memory (STM) as a storage space. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 16

17 Demonstration I will read a list of words, one at a time. Hold them in your memory. When I say to write them down in any order you wish. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 17

18 Maintenance Rehearsal: Mentally repeating items in STM Chapter 5 Memory Processes 18

19 George Miller (1956) free recall test of memory for words and numbers. Capacity of STM - The Magic Number 7: +/- 2 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 19

20 STM Span Miller defined memory span as the average number participants could remember in order 50% of the time. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 20

21 Memory Chunks Seven Chunks of Memory can be retained in STM. Chunking increases capacity of STM BATCARBOYERA - requires processing for meaning (recoding) Chapter 5 Memory Processes 21

22 Factors the effect memory span Less syllables (Shorter Pronunciation) = Higher Digit Span Larger Chunks reduce memory span. Chunk Size Memory Span Unrelated words 6 or 7 Two Word Phrases 4 Eight Word Phrases 3 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 22

23 Did you remember less words this time? Retaining memory is STM depends on the items active in attention. When your attention is shifted to something else, you lose the information from STM. Peterson found that when not attended for as little as 18 seconds, an item is lost. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 23

24 Duration of STM Peterson & Peterson (1959) Increasing the time of the secondary task (counting backwards by 3 s) reduces Memory Span. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 24

25 Interference Retroactive Interference new information replaces old information in STM. Proactive Interference old information already stored in STM keeps new information from being stored. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 25

26 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 26

27 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 27

28 Short Term vs. Long-Term Double Dissociation? Memory (LTM) Milner (1966) patient H.M normally working short-term memory with an impaired long term one. Shallice & Warrington (1970) patient K.F. unimpaired long-term memory performance while a severe impairment in short-term memory. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 28

29 Long Term Memory (LTM) Unlimited Capacity and Duration for some information (factor effecting LTM discussed in chapter 6). Based on semantic (meaning) organization. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 29

30 Types of LTM Episodic Memory Time That memories. Contains contextual information (time, place, mood). Autobiographical re-experiencing the past - flashbulb or vivid memories Non-autobiographical knowing that something happened without feeling of reexperiencing it. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 30

31 Non-autobiographical knowing that something happened without feeling of reexperiencing it. Neurological evidence - Medial Temporal lobe (MTL) and hippocampus pull back together perceptual pieces of information from the cortical areas in which they are stored. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 31

32 Semantic Memory Knowing that fact based general memory. Not connected to time and place. Includes language stores. Neurological evidence MTL but other activated areas depend on USE of information (e.g., visual information activates areas of visual cortex). Prefrontal Lobe also more activated. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 32

33 Procedural Memory knowing how - automatic flow of how to do things. Neurological evidence Basal Ganglia and frontal lobe. Evidence that this is separate store. - Clive Wearing lost episodic memory but not procedural memory (could remember how to play the piano). Chapter 5 Memory Processes 33

34 Less of specific procedural memories without lose of semantic of episodic memory. e.g., Dressing apraxia is usually involves lesions to the inferior parietal region. The patient has difficulty putting on their clothes. For example, a patient may attempt to put a shirt on upside down, then inside-out, and then backwards. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 34

35 Patients with episodic and Semantic loss can aquire procedural memories. e.g., Patients such as H.M. shown to improve in procedural memory (get better at skills) without memory for having done the task before or semantic knowledge related to the task. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 35

36 Working Memory (WM) (Baddley & Hitch) Place where mental work is done. - activates flow of information from LTM into WM and from WM to LTM. Consists of two levels of processors Central Executive Helper Systems modality specific memory stores Chapter 5 Memory Processes 36

37 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 37

38 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 38

39 Central Executive (Boss) - Directs the flow of Information - limited capacity - role is of attention rather than memory - activation of info from LTM Control Processes - rehearsal - coding for meaning - integration of information - decision making Chapter 5 Memory Processes 39

40 Central Executive - Resembles an attention System - No storage ability - Frontal Lobes Thought to play a large role. Dysexecutive syndrome is a neurological impairment of executive function, where patients have trouble with complex thinking and reasoning tasks. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 40

41 Storage Systems Store information for each sensory modality. The most studied stores are the visuospatial sketchpad (visual) and the Phonological (sound based) loop. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 41

42 Demonstration single versus dual task. Storage systems have limited capacity but do not interfere with each other. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 42

43 Quinn & McConnell (1996) Dual Tasks Remember a list of words by either Maintenance rehearsal (phonological loop) Visual images (visuospatial sketchpad) Presented with a visual display (random dots) Visual display interfered with image memory but not verbal memory. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 43

44 Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad Mental rotation studies For each row, which of the three comparison shapes on the right is identical to the shape on the left? Module 27 - Thinking 44

45 Shepard and Metzler (1971) found that the farther you have to rotate an object mentally, the longer the comparison takes. The speed at which you can complete the tasks provides a general measure of your spatial ability. -takes time to mentally rotate object -greater the rotation, longer the time Module 27 - Thinking 45

46 What does this tell us about the visuospatial sketchpad. - Holds three dimensional images that can be manipulated. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 46

47 Central Exec Phonological loop Holds sound based information giving Central Exec longer to process it. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 47

48 Phonological Loop Phonological Similarity Effect - more errors when recalling items that sound alike. Shows that storage is according to sound. Articulatory Suppression Effect having participants repeat irrelevant words out loud while trying to maintain information in the phonological loop reduces memory for the to be recalled words. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 48

49 Word Length Effect Longer words (with more syllables) show lower recall rates than shorter words. 1 syllable words = 80% recall 5 syllable words = 30% recall Interpreted as a time limited loop. Not number of items but how long it takes to pronounce them. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 49

50 More on word length effect Adults who speak faster than children tend to have larder memory span. Memory span is larger in languages that are spoken faster (e.g., Chinese). Chapter 5 Memory Processes 50

51 Episodic Buffer storage system that can hold information from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. -General storage system for combining and integrating information from other components and from long-term memory. - Limited capacity Chapter 5 Memory Processes 51

52 Episodic Buffer Link between between working and LTM Evidence this is a separate store 1) STM for sentences is better than for word lists indicating that binding information (language and semantics) increases overall word recall. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 52

53 2) The sentence recall advantage effect is found even when concurrent tasks are added that occupy the Visuospatial or the phonological loop. see Figure 5.10 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 53

54 Evidence from Case Studies The main motivation for introducing this component was the observation that some (in particular, highly intelligent) patients with amnesia, who presumably have no ability to encode new information in long-term memory, nevertheless have good short-term recall of stories, recalling much more information than could be held in the phonological loop. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 54

55 Working Memory Capacity Information is stored briefly while processing other information. Working Memory Capacity = Ability to combine processing and storage of Information. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 55

56 Measuring WM Capacity Reading Span Largest number of sentences from which an individual can recall the final words 50% of the time. Operation Span (demo at 3:17) Dual task (math and memory). Chapter 5 Memory Processes 56

57 Chapter 5 Memory Processes 57

58 WM Capacity is more strongly related to Fluid than to Crystalized Intelligence! This is a correlation!! WM capacity could be causing higher IQ. IQ could be causing higher WM Capacity. Both could be related to some third factor!! Chapter 5 Memory Processes 58

59 Retrieval From LTM Several different tasks are used when we test memory and the results we get depends on the type of task we use. Intentional vs. Incidental Memory Tasks? Are cues given to guide memory? Chapter 5 Memory Processes 59

60 Explicit Memory A.K.A. Declarative Memory Explicit memory requires conscious thought such as recalling who you had lunch with yesterday or naming animals that live in the jungle. Semantic and episodic memory can be tested using explicit tests. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 60

61 Recall Tests Free recall tasks Asked to retrieve information without additional memory. Recall the names of the Seven Dwarfs. If I added to that the information the 6 of the names end in y and one is a name of a profession, the task is now a cued recall task. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 61

62 Recognition Task The cue given is the answer, your task is to verify the correct answers. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 62

63 Comparison and Recall and Recognition tasks Study method effects memory. Eagle & Leiter (1964) Participants used an intentional to learn half a lest of words and an incidental learning method (classify these words by parts of speech) but were not told their memory would be tested. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 63

64 Results On a recall test the words that were intentionally learned were better recalled. But on a recognition test, the incidental learning task produced better results. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 64

65 Common words are more likely to be recalled, but uncommon words are more likely to be recognized (perhaps because they are more distinctive). Chapter 5 Memory Processes 65

66 Implicit Memory Tasks We have already seen some of these with priming. Tasks are designed to measure memory without intentional memory. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 66

67 L T E P A PLATE PETAL GP Mem(1) 67

68 Priming sheet 1 Unscramble the following word: Answer: F I N E K K N I F E O P O N S S P O O N K R O F F O R K P U C C U P E C U S A R S A U C E R L T E P A P L A T E

69 Priming sheet 2 Unscramble the following words: N Y P A S F E L A K T A L S D U B L O B S O M S L T E P A Answer: P A N S Y L E A F S T A L K B U D B L O S S O M P E T A L

70 BECOMING FAMOUS OVERNIGHT (Jacoby, 1988) Subjects read a list of names, including Sebastian Weisdorf that they were told were nonfamous. Immediately after reading that list, people could respond with certainty that Sebastian Weisdorf was not famous because they could easily recollect that his name was among those they had read. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 70

71 However, when there was a 24-hr delay between reading the list of nonfamous names and making fame judgments, the name Sebastian Weisdorfand other nonfamous names from the list were more likely to be mistakenly judged as famous than they would have been had they not been read earlier. The names became famous overnight. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 71

72 Why? Reading a nonfamous name must increase its familiarity, and the delay must influence familiarity less than recall. After a delay, an old nonfamous name is judged as famous because it seems familiar. Chapter 5 Memory Processes 72

73 A return to the What and Where/How pathways: The Capgra Delution Video (11 mins) Chapter 5 Memory Processes 73

74 Prospective Memory Retrospective memory (RM): Memory for things that happened in the past. Prospective memory (PM): Memory for intended future actions. Related to plans, motives and goals.

75 Related to plans, motives and goals. Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) Prospective Long-term Do they fail to mention or give something to a visitor that they were asked to pass on? Prospective Short-term Do they intend to take something with them, before leaving a room or going out, but minutes later leave it behind, even though it is there in front of them? General Memory Factor - Prospective and retrospective measures are correlated.

76 Age and Memory RM and PM both decline with age. PM is best in the teen years! Steady decline through the 20 s, 30 s.... Females better RM than males.

77 Stages of PM Encoding - of what, when and intention. Retention over a period of time. Retrieval at suitable time. Execution acting upon intention. Evaluation- replanning if need be.

78 Prospective Memory Tasks Event-based tasks Triggered by events Time-based tasks Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed Event-based easier (52%) than Times-based (33%).

79 Self-initiating Processes Rehearsals of Intended Processes Time Based often lack external cues. People use more self-initiating processes for a time-based than an event based? Half of these rehearsals were spontaneous.

80 Specificity of Targets More Processing resources are needed when targets are poorly specified. When the target is poorly specified (call me next week) it is less likely to be recalled than when the target is well specified (call me next Tuesday). True for both Time and Event based tasks!

81 Improving Prospective Memory External Aids - diaries, calendars, lists, sticky notes, finger crossing, smartphones. - Visual cues and reminders.

82 Have someone remind you. Do reminders work???? - Not Always. Remember to take the garbage out when you leave for school! Reminders that referred only to the intended activity did improve PM but not to the level of reminders that referred both to the target events and to the intended activity.

83 Prevent Unexpected Interruptions!! Several airline catastrophes have occurred because pilots were interrupted while performing critical preflight tasks after the interruption was over, the pilots skipped to the next task, not realizing that the interrupted tasks hadn t been finished. When interrupted pause to make a new plan to carry out ALL intended actions!

84 Avoid Multitasking Multitasking is also a major cause of prospective memory failures. Research has shown that problems arise when we become too focused on the task we are performing a situation call cognitive tunneling forgetting to switch our attention back to the other tasks at hand.

85 Reminding Oneself Context needs to be part of the intention. Very similar to encoding specificity principle in retrospective memory.