Word Memory Test Performance in Amnesic Patients With Hippocampal Damage

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1 Neuropsychology 2009 American Psychological Association 2009, Vol. 23, No. 4, /09/$12.00 DOI: /a Word Memory Test Performance in Amnesic Patients With Hippocampal Damage Naomi J. Goodrich-Hunsaker Brigham Young University Ramona O. Hopkins Brigham Young University and Intermountain Medical Center Many symptom validity tests (SVTs) assess performance validity via declarative memory paradigms. One widely used SVT, the Word Memory Test (WMT), uses a variety of memory tests to assess performance. It is well known that declarative memory requires the hippocampus and related medial temporal lobe structures. In the present study, WMT performance was examined in nonlitigating amnesic subjects (n 3) with well-documented focal bilateral hippocampal atrophy who were nondemented and otherwise cognitively unimpaired compared with matched controls. The amnesic subjects had no external incentives. Amnesic subjects performed significantly below the level of matched comparison subjects but above established cutoff scores on the immediate recognition and delay recognition subtests and consistency component. In contrast, the amnesic subjects were impaired relative to our comparison subjects on the multiple-choice, paired associate, free-recall, and long delay free-recall subtests and had extremely low performance on these measures. Thus, there was a differential effect of hippocampal damage on WMT performance where the recognition subtests were performed within the normal range, yet the free recall was profoundly impaired in amnesic subjects. Such an approach where SVT performance is assessed in populations with well-known cognitive impairments adds breadth to SVT clinical interpretations. Keywords: symptom validity test, amnesia, declarative memory, hippocampus A basic assumption of most memory-based symptom validity tests (SVT) is that presenting examinees with a forced-choice decision on a simple cognitive task can assess credible neuropsychological performance. SVTs are designed with a goal that even patients with significant neurological disease or injury should be able to easily perform above some recommended cutoff score (Bianchini, Mathias, & Greve, 2001; Vanderploeg & Curtiss, 2001). Thus, SVTs represent a neuropsychological probe of cognitive ability, in most cases, memory. The Word Memory Test (WMT; Green, 2003) is an SVT that claims to be virtually insensitive to all but the most extreme forms of impairment (Flaro, Green, & Robertson, 2007, p. 373). Research is limited regarding the neural substrates involved in SVT performance. A recent fmri study found that healthy control subjects had extensive neural network activation within the ventral lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and traditional areas related to language and memory function (Allen, Bigler, Larsen, Goodrich-Hunsaker, & Hopkins, 2007). This activation pattern is expected because, at its core, the WMT is a verbal declarative memory task (Merten, Bossink, & Schmand, 2007). Normal healthy subjects with Naomi J. Goodrich-Hunsaker, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University. Ramona O. Hopkins, Neuroscience Center and Psychology Department, Brigham Young University; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Critical Care Medicine, Intermountain Medical Center, Murray, UT. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Naomi J. Goodrich-Hunsaker, Psychology Department, 1082 SWKT, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT naomihunsaker@mac.com 100% WMT accuracy in the Allen et al. (2007) study demonstrated widespread activation patterns and integration in the perceptual, language, and memory networks. One implication of the Allen et al. study is that complex neural circuitry and systems have to be intact and integrated for the individuals to perform above recommended cutoff scores on SVTs (Sarter, Gehring, & Kozak, 2006). The above findings provide some evidence as to why some patient populations with damage or disruption within these neural networks may exhibit impaired performance on SVTs (e.g., scoring below the recommended cutoff score). In cases of dementia (Merten et al., 2007), traumatic brain injury (Bowden, Shores, & Mathias, 2006), and epilepsy (Dodrill, 2008), impairments on the WMT have been observed. If legitimate failures due to bona fide cognitive impairment occur on SVT tasks like the WMT, the basic neural elements sufficient to perform SVTs should be explored by examining patients with discrete neural lesions. For example, no SVTs (including the WMT) have been examined concurrently with neuroimaging to better understand what neural systems are necessary for task performance in patient populations. Because declarative memory is dependent on the medial temporal lobe, particularly the hippocampus (Davachi & Dobbins, 2008; Ofen, Kao, Sokol-Hessner, Kim, Whitfield-Gabrieli, & Gabrieli, 2007; Squire, Wixted, & Clark, 2007), individuals with focal bilateral damage involving the hippocampus represent an ideal opportunity to study the neural systems relevant to SVT performance. We selected the WMT to determine how amnesic patients perform on SVTs where memory is a key component of the test. Each patient had bilateral hippocampal damage as a consequence of anoxic brain injury incident to cardiopulmonary arrest. None of the amnesic subjects had any clinically identifiable lesions or 529

2 530 GOODRICH-HUNSAKER AND HOPKINS abnormalities outside the medial temporal lobe, in regions such as the ventral lateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. These subjects have been the focus of extensive declarative memory research studies on chronic amnesic syndromes (Gold, Hopkins, & Squire, 2006; Gold, Smith, et al., 2006; Hopkins, Myers, Shohamy, Grossman, & Gluck, 2004; Shrager, Bayley, Bontempi, Hopkins, & Squire, 2007; Wais, Wixted, Hopkins, & Squire, 2006) and as such, their amnesic deficits are well described. None of these subjects were in litigation, and there was no known external incentive to perform poorly on the WMT. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to assess performance on the WMT in amnesic patients with hippocampal damage and well-described memory deficits. If patients with significant neurological impairment can easily perform above some recommended cutoff score, then patients with no external incentive to perform poorly who have a known memory disorder and documented hippocampal atrophy should perform equal to demographically and age-matched controls on the primary effort measures of the WMT (e.g., immediate recognition, delayed recognition subtests, and consistency component). On the other hand, if the WMT is dependent on the integrity of the hippocampus, performance on the primary effort measures of the WMT will be significantly reduced in amnesic subjects with bilateral hippocampal damage. Furthermore, as cognitive demands change with the different components of WMT performance, a gradient of impairment in the amnesic subjects would also be expected given that these amnesic subjects have shown in other studies various gradients of impairment related to task demands and task complexity. For example, the WMT has recognition, multiple-choice, paired associate, free-recall subtests, and the consistency component that likely pose different challenges to the neural networks damaged in amnesic subjects who have bilateral hippocampal damage. Based on the known performance on various types of declarative memory tasks, we predicted that WMT recognition subtests would be least affected with greater impairment on the free-recall aspects of the WMT in amnesic subjects compared with healthy demographically matched comparison subjects. Subjects Method Three male amnesic subjects with hippocampal damage subsequent to anoxic brain injury and four male comparison subjects matched for age, gender, and education were enrolled in this study. Neither the amnesic nor comparison subjects had prior neurological disorders, alcohol or drug abuse, or psychiatric disorders. The amnesic subjects, as shown by their performance in other memory studies, have stable nonprogressive cognitive deficits. This study was approved by the Brigham Young University Institutional Review Board and conformed to institutional and federal guidelines for the protection of human subjects. Written informed consent was obtained prior to behavioral testing in all subjects. No subject was involved in litigation or had impending litigation of any kind, and the information from this study was strictly empirical in nature and not provided to the subjects treating clinicians. No incentives were used in any facet of this study. MRI MRI studies followed established research protocols (Bigler, Anderson, Blatter, & Andersob, 2002) and were acquired with a Seimans 3.0 Tesla Scanner using standard protocols. Sagittal T1- weighted (TR/TE/excitations 500/11/2) images were acquired, followed by contiguous axial proton density (TR/TE 2500/15) and contiguous T2-weighted (TR/TE 5253/93.6) spin echo images with a slice thickness of 5 mm. Images were acquired on a matrix with a 22-cm field of view for the axial images and a 24-cm field of view for the sagittal images. Contiguous T1 coronal images were acquired (TR/TE 13/4.47) 1.2 mm thick, followed by coronal contiguous T2-weighted images (TR/TE 3500/114) 1.5 mm thick. Images were acquired with a field of view of 25.6 cm on a matrix. Axial images were quantified as described by Blatter et al. (1995) using the software ANALYZE 5.0/6.0 (Biomedical Imaging Resource, Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN). Regions of cerebral spinal fluid, white matter, and gray matter were defined by the user, and plotted in a two-dimensional feature space. Quantitative MR analyses to determine hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes were performed as per the methods described previously (Bigler et al., 1997). A qualitative neuroradiological rating was also obtained where the neuroradiologist was asked to clinically evaluate the brain for gross lesions or other abnormalities outside of the medial temporal lobe. Neuropsychological Tests All subjects were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests to assess general intellectual ability and memory. Intellectual function was assessed with the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, which has a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 (Wechsler, 1999). Memory function was assessed using the Wechsler Memory Scale III, which has a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 (Wechsler, 1997). Word Memory Test The WMT (Green, 2003) is a computerized test of the ability to learn a list of 20 semantically linked pairs of common words, 40 words total (e.g., dog/cat, man/woman, fish/fin). The list was presented twice on the computer screen at a rate of 3 s per word. Only 1 word was presented at a time. The WMT consisted of six subtests: immediate recognition, delay recognition, multiple choice, paired associate, free recall, and long delay free recall. The immediate recognition subtest consisted of 40 two-choice recognition trials. Each of the original 40 words was paired with a new word (foil; e.g., dog/rat). The subject selects which of the two words was from the original 40-word list by pressing the left shift key for the word on the left side of the computer screen or the right shift key for the word on the right side of the computer screen. Thirty minutes after immediate recognition and without warning, subjects completed the delay recognition subtest. Subjects selected each of the original 40 words from pairs with new 40 foil words (e.g., dog/rabbit). Immediately after the delay recognition subtest, subjects completed the multiple-choice subtest. Subjects were presented with half the original 40 words. For each word, 8 words appeared on the screen (1 correct, 7 foils) and the subject selected which of the 8 words was originally paired with it (e.g., the word

3 WORD MEMORY TEST PERFORMANCE 531 is dog, therefore cat should be selected). Next, subjects completed the paired associate subtest. The paired associate subtest was not computerized. Subjects were verbally given a word from the original 40 words. Subjects verbally replied with the other paired word. After the paired associate subtest, subjects completed the free-recall subtest. The free-recall subtest was not computerized, but subjects verbally stated as many of the 40 words as they could remember from the original list. Twenty minutes after free recall and without warning, subject completed the long delay free-recall subtest. Again, subjects verbally stated as many of the 40 words as they could remember from the original list. The dependent variable for each subtest (immediate recognition, delay recognition, multiple choice, paired associate, free recall, and long delay free recall) was percentage correct. Statistics Descriptive statistics were carried out for demographic, imaging, neuropsychological test scores, and WMT subtest scores. For neuropsychological test scores and the WMT subtest scores, we carried out individual t tests. The consistency component of the WMT was also included in the statistical analyses. The consistency component measures the reliability of responses between the immediate and delay recognition subtests. Descriptive Statistics Results The mean age of the amnesic subjects was years (range 30 to 51 years), with a mean educational level of years. The mean age of the comparison subjects was years (range 24 to 58 years), with a mean educational level years. There were no significant differences between the groups for age or education level. MRI The qualitative clinical MRI readings by a neuroradiologist observed that one subject had focal T2 signal changes in the hippocampus but there was no evidence of other focal lesions or other structural abnormalities for the amnesic subjects, other than hippocampal atrophy. The mean percentage hippocampal atrophy for all amnesic subjects was 24.7% 9.9 compared with the MRI comparison sample. The parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal gyrus, perirhinal gyrus, and total temporal lobe volumes were not significantly different in amnesic subjects compared with MRI comparison subjects. Neuropsychological Tests The results of the subjects neuropsychological tests are shown in Table 1. The amnesic subjects Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ were within average range and did not differ from comparison subjects. The amnesic subjects had significant memory impairments ( 1.5 SD below the mean) on all memory indices except for the Auditory Recognition Index and Working Memory Index. Likewise, the amnesic subjects memory scores were significantly lower than comparison subjects scores on all memory indices of the Wechsler Memory Scale III ( p.04 to.007) except for the Auditory Recognition Index and Working Memory Index. WMT Performance Percentage correct performance for the amnesic and comparison subjects for immediate recognition, delay recognition, multiple- Table 1 Neuropsychology and Word Memory Test Results for Comparison and Amnesic Subjects Test C1 C2 C3 C4 H1 H2 H3 WASI Full Scale Intelligence Quotient Verbal Intelligence Quotient Performance Intelligence Quotient WMS III Auditory Immediate Memory Index Visual Immediate Memory Index Immediate Memory Index Auditory Delayed Memory Index Visual Delayed Memory Index General Memory Index Auditory Recognition Index Working Memory Index Word Memory Test (% correct) Immediate recognition Delayed recognition Consistency component Multiple choice Paired associate Free recall Long delay free recall Note. C comparison subjects; H hippocampal damage amnesic subjects; WASI Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; WMS III Wechsler Memory Scale III. The WASI and the WMS III have mean scores of 100 and standard deviations of 15.

4 532 GOODRICH-HUNSAKER AND HOPKINS choice, paired associated, free-recall, and long delay free-recall subtests are shown in Table 1. Significant differences between comparison and amnesic subjects were found on the following subtests of the WMT; immediate recognition, t(5) 3.42, p.02; delay recognition, t(5) 3.39, p.02; consistency component, t(5) 5.14, p.004; multiple choice, t(5) 4.99, p.004; paired associate, t(5) 3.77, p.01; free recall, t(5) 3.58, p.02; and long delay free recall, t(5) 5.68, p.002. The amnesic subjects scores were more than 3 standard deviations below our comparison subjects mean on the multiple-choice, paired associate, free-recall, and long delay free-recall subtests. Although amnesic subjects performed below the level of our comparison subjects, they scored above the recommended 82.5% cutoff on the immediate recognition and delay recognition subtests and the consistency component of the WMT (see Figure 1; Green, 2003). Discussion All amnesic subjects scored significantly below our matched comparison subjects but above the recommended cutoff scores on the immediate recognition and delayed recognition subtests and the consistency component (e.g., effort measures) of the WMT (Green, 2003), which tentatively supports good specificity for these subtests. Thus, simple recognition memory appears to be intact in our amnesic subjects when using the WMT cutoff scores. However, simple amnesic subjects recognition memory scores were impaired relative to our matched comparison subjects. Furthermore, amnesic subjects scores were also impaired relative to our matched comparison subjects and were more Figure 1. Performance of the comparison and amnesic subjects on the Word Memory Test (WMT). The WMT consisted of six subtests: immediate recognition (IR), delay recognition (DR), consistency response (CNS), multiple choice (MC), paired associate (PA), free recall (FR), and long delay free recall (LDFR). Amnesic subjects performed significantly below comparison subjects on the immediate recognition, delay recognition, consistency component, multiple choice, paired associate, free recall, and long delay free recall. Amnesic subjects scores were above the WMT cutoff scores on the immediate recognition and delay recognition subtests of the WMT. Amnesic subjects were impaired on the multiple-choice, paired associate, free-recall, and long delay free-recall subtests. The dashed line indicates the cutoff scores as published by Green (2003). p.05. p.01. p.005. than 3 standard deviations below the WMT normal adult mean for the multiple-choice, paired associate, and free-recall subtests of the WMT; therefore, their performance was extremely low. Amnesic subjects were profoundly impaired on these latter WMT subtests. The amnesic subjects did not have any known or identifiable lesions or abnormalities outside of the medial temporal lobe. Given that these other neural systems were intact in the context of documented bilateral hippocampal damage, the WMT failures by these amnesic subjects on the multiple-choice, paired associate, and free-recall components are likely due to impaired hippocampal function. One possible reason why the amnesic subjects performance on the immediate recognition and delayed recognition subtests and the consistency component was not below the cutoff scores may be due to familiarity with the item, simplicity of the item, repeated presentation of the item, or low memory load. Previous investigations have suggested that two processes facilitate recognition memory: recollection of the stimulus within a specific context and familiarity with the features of the stimulus. Westerberg et al. (2006) suggests that certain types of recognition memory tasks, specifically forced-choice recognition memory tasks, can be mediated by familiarity alone. Previous research and theoretical models suggest that the hippocampus mediates recollection, whereas familiarity is supported by the parahippocampal gyrus (Brown & Aggleton, 2001; Eichenbaum, Yonelinas, & Ranganath, 2007). Neuropathology in the hippocampus disrupts recollection but not familiarity (Westerberg et al., 2006). Therefore, for the amnesic subjects in this investigation, the common and basic nature of the WMT words and their foils during the recognition trials did not exceed the demands necessary to process and retrieve this information even in the presence of hippocampal damage. Likewise, the simple (one word and one foil per trial) recognition format of the ordinary words presented in the test phase that make up the WMT provides some familiar context for retention, which likely facilitates recognition memory in the forced-choice recognition format used by the WMT (Squire et al., 2007). It is well known that multiple-choice and paired associate paradigms also provide some contextual cues for later recall. However, memory is typically worse under these conditions than in tasks that require simple recognition memory (Broadbent, Squire, & Clark, 2004; Chun & Phelps, 1999; Milner, 2005). Free recall, where there are no cues, is typically the most affected in the presence of focal hippocampal pathology (Aggleton et al., 2005; Dickerson et al., 2007; Manns, Hopkins, Reed, Kitchener, & Squire, 2003; Scoville & Milner, 1957). Indeed, amnesic subjects display distinct deficits on the WMT multiple-choice, paired associate, and free-recall subtests. Impairment on these WMT subtests (see Figure 1) appeared to follow an impairment gradient where free recall resulted in the most severe memory impairment, paired associate with intermediate memory impairment, and the multiple-choice format resulting in the least severe memory impairment. The amnesic subjects scores were significantly impaired relative to our comparison subjects and were more than 3 standard deviations below the WMT normal adult mean on each of these subtests. Familiarity and contextual features of multiple-choice and paired associate tasks may partially explain why the amnesic subjects in this study exhibited intermediate-level memory impairments yet such profound memory deficits in the

5 WORD MEMORY TEST PERFORMANCE 533 free-recall format. Based on the current findings, the WMT free recall is most dependent on hippocampal integrity in contrast to WMT recognition memory, which is the least dependent on hippocampal integrity, with multiple-choice retention and paired associate learning having an intermediate dependence on an intact hippocampus. A major limitation of our study is the small sample size of amnesic subjects. This is due to the rarity of amnesic subjects with pathology restricted to the hippocampus. These amnesic subjects represented an ideal circumstance to explore the role of the human hippocampus on WMT performance. Another limitation of our study is that there were no subjects with other types of lesions and clinical syndromes within the medial temporal lobe not including the hippocampus. Also, because this study included only subjects with known bilateral hippocampal damage, the effects of lateralized hippocampal damage on WMT performance is not known. Future research also is needed to examine patients with discrete lesions in the neural regions that were activated during the Allen et al. (2007) fmri study, namely, the ventral lateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. The major strength of our study includes results that are novel, as this is the first study to assess performance on the WMT in amnesic subjects with pathology restricted to the hippocampus. The current study demonstrates how amnesic subjects with bilateral hippocampal damage inform us about the role of the hippocampus in WMT performance. Amnesic subjects were impaired relative to our matched comparison subjects on all WMT subtests. All amnesic subjects scored above the WMT recommended cutoffs on the immediate recognition and delayed recognition subtests and the consistency component, but had extremely low performance on the multiple-choice, paired associate, free-recall, and long delay free-recall components. Thus, there was a differential effect of hippocampal damage on WMT performance where the recognition components were performed below the cutoff score, yet free recall was profoundly impaired in amnesic subjects. Additional research is needed to understand the cognitive and neural systems that underlie SVT measures such as the WMT. References Aggleton, J., Vann, S., Denby, C., Dix, S., Mayes, A., Roberts, N., et al. (2005). Sparing of the familiarity subtest of recognition memory in a patient with hippocampal pathology. Neuropsychologia, 43, Allen, M., Bigler, E., Larsen, J., Goodrich-Hunsaker, N., & Hopkins, R. (2007). Functional neuroimaging evidence for high cognitive effort on the Word Memory Test in the absence of external incentives. Brain Injury, 21, Bianchini, K., Mathias, C., & Greve, K. (2001). Symptom validity testing: A critical review. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, Bigler, E., Anderson, C., Blatter, D., & Andersob, C. (2002). Temporal lobe morphology in normal aging and traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 23, Bigler, E., Blatter, D., Anderson, C., Johnson, S., Gale, S., Hopkins, R., et al. (1997). Hippocampal volume in normal aging and traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 18, Blatter, D., Bigler, E., Gale, S., Johnson, S., Anderson, C., Burnett, B., et al. (1995). Quantitative volumetric analysis of brain MR: Normative database spanning 5 decades of life. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 16, Bowden, S., Shores, E., & Mathias, J. (2006). Does effort suppress cognition after traumatic brain injury? 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Do patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures produce trustworthy findings on neuropsychological tests? Epilepsia, 49, Eichenbaum, H., Yonelinas, A., & Ranganath, C. (2007). The medial temporal lobe and recognition memory. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, Flaro, L., Green, P., & Robertson, E. (2007). Word Memory Test failure 23 times higher in mild brain injury than in parents seeking custody: The power of external incentives. Brain Injury, 21, Gold, J., Hopkins, R., & Squire, L. (2006). Single-item memory, associative memory, and the human hippocampus. Learning & Memory, 13, Gold, J., Smith, C., Bayley, P., Shrager, Y., Brewer, J., Stark, C., et al. (2006). Item memory, source memory, and the medial temporal lobe: Concordant findings from fmri and memory-impaired patients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 103, Green, P. (2003). Word Memory Test for Windows: User s manual and program. Edmonton, Alberta: Author. Hopkins, R., Myers, C., Shohamy, D., Grossman, S., & Gluck, M. (2004). Impaired probabilistic category learning in hypoxic subjects with hippocampal damage. Neuropsychologia, 42, Manns, J., Hopkins, R., Reed, J., Kitchener, E., & Squire, L. (2003). Recognition memory and the human hippocampus. Neuron, 37, Merten, T., Bossink, L., & Schmand, B. (2007). On the limits of effort testing: Symptom validity tests and severity of neurocognitive symptoms in nonlitigant patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29, Milner, B. (2005). The medial temporal-lobe amnesic syndrome. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 28, Ofen, N., Kao, Y.-C., Sokol-Hessner, P., Kim, H., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., & Gabrieli, J. (2007). Development of the declarative memory system in the human brain. Nature Neuroscience, 10, Sarter, M., Gehring, W., & Kozak, R. (2006). More attention must be paid: The neurobiology of attentional effort. Brain Research Reviews, 51, Scoville, W., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 20, Shrager, Y., Bayley, P., Bontempi, B., Hopkins, R., & Squire, L. (2007). Spatial memory and the human hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 104, Squire, L., Wixted, J., & Clark, R. (2007). Recognition memory and the medial temporal lobe: A new perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8,

6 534 GOODRICH-HUNSAKER AND HOPKINS Vanderploeg, R., & Curtiss, G. (2001). Malingering assessment: Evaluation of validity of performance. NeuroRehabilitation, 16, Wais, P., Wixted, J., Hopkins, R., & Squire, L. (2006). The hippocampus supports both the recollection and the familiarity components of recognition memory. Neuron, 49, Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Memory Scale administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Westerberg, C., Paller, K., Weintraub, S., Mesulam, M.-M., Holdstock, J., Mayes, A., et al. (2006). When memory does not fail: Familiarity-based recognition in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer s disease. Neuropsychology, 20, Received July 24, 2008 Revision received January 26, 2009 Accepted January 27, 2009

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