2/27/2017. Modal Model of Memory. Executive Attention & Working Memory. Some Questions to Consider (over the next few weeks)

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1 Executive Attention & Working Memory Memory 1 Some Questions to Consider (over the next few weeks) Why can we remember a telephone number long enough to place a call, but then we forget it almost immediately? How is memory involved in processes such as doing a math problem? Do we use the same memory system to remember things we have seen and things we have heard? What is memory? Are there different kinds of memory? Modal Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) Three different types of memory: Sensory Memory Initial stage holds all incoming information Short-term Memory Holds 5-7 items for 15 to 20 seconds Long-term Memory Hold information indefinitely 1

2 Modal Model of Memory Control processes are active processes that can be controlled by the person Rehearsal Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli Sensory Memory Sensory Memory is retention of, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation Holds large amount of information for a short period of time Fills in the blanks Iconic Memory Retention of the perception of light Sparkler s trail of light Frames in film Echoic Memory Brief sensory memory of the things that we hear Responsible for persistence of sound Sensory Memory Sperling (1960) Measurement of Capacity and Duration of Iconic Memory Whole Report Partial Report Delayed Partial Report 2

3 How is information coded in STM? Acoustic codes Phonetic information is main code Acoustic confusion errors BCPTV vs. XYKVZ Image codes Visual image information 4 ± 1 items Semantic codes Meaningful information Release from proactive interference Capacity of STM George Miller s (1956) magical number 7 ± 2 Digit span (or other) simple span tasks Chunking (recoding) Increase in number of individual units stored in STM Bower & Springston (1970) FBI...PHD...TWA...IBM vs. FB...IPH...DTW...AIB...M Word length effect Capacity of STM/WM depends on length of verbal information dog vs. hippopotamus Phonological store is limited in duration Capacity of Visual STM Change detection procedure Cowan s Magical 4 ± 1 Items Luck & Vogel (1997): Change-detection task Cowan s K = ( + 1) No Change Change 3

4 Duration of STM Brown-Peterson Task Peterson & Peterson (1959) Brown (1959) Letter trigram (JDL) followed by backward counting task (301) Proportion Recalled Retention Interval Decay from STM or Interference within STM? Decay without rehearsal information is spontaneously lost over time Interference processing in STM is influenced by other information in STM Proactive interference Something presented before an event prevents recall of that event A B... A interferes with recalling B Retroactive interference Something presented after an event prevents recall of that event A B C... C interferes with recalling B Keppel & Underwood (1962) Brown-Peterson results were due to proactive interference Proportion Recalled Trial 4 Trial 3 Trial 2 Trial Retention Interval (seconds) 4

5 Wickens et al. (1976) Release from proactive interference (PI) Induced a buildup of PI across trials On last trial: Release From PI vs. Continued Buildup of PI Buildup of Proactive Interference No Release from PI: Banana Peach Apple Plum Apricot Lime Melon Lemon Grape Orange Cherry Pineapple Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Release from PI: Lawyer Firefighter Teacher Dancer Minister Executive Grocer Doctor Editor Orange Cherry Pineapple Buildup of Proactive Interference No Interference Wickens et al. (1976) Percent Recalled Trial No. No PI PI Alvarez and Cavanaugh (2004) Used colored squares as well as complex objects Used the change detection procedure 5

6 Idea for working memory came from many individual differences in STM tasks Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Model Master System Sensory Input Slave Systems Central Executive Phonological Loop Episodic Buffer Visuospatial Sketchpad Long Term Memory Storage Evidence? Dual-task situations Tasks that require the same system compete Tasks that require different systems do not compete Central Executive tasks compete with everything Baddeley (1992) and Chess Masters Single-task Articulatory suppression Visuospatial suppression Central executive suppression 6

7 Brooks (1968) Varied task (verbal, spatial) and response mode (verbal, spatial) Spatial Task Verbal Task A bird in the hand is not in the bush. Response Mode Task Verbal Spatial Verbal 28.3 sec sec. Spatial 9.8 sec sec. Evidence for Phonological Loop? Phonological similarity effect Letters or words that sound similar are confused Word-length effect Memory for words is better for short words than for long words Takes longer to rehearse long words Articulatory suppression Reduces memory span Eliminates word-length effect Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words Vogel et al. (2005) Determined participants WM High-capacity WM group Low-capacity WM group Shown either simple or complex stimuli Measured ERP responses 7

8 Irrelevant speech effect Irrelevant verbal information disrupts processing relevant verbal information Alley and Greene (2008) Digit span completed under several conditions Silence Irrelevant speech Vocal Music Karaoke Memory Span (# Recalled) Silence Instrumental Music Speech Vocal Music Visuospatial sketchpad can be separated into visual and spatial components Woodman, Vogel & Luck (2001) Dual-task procedure Manipulated visual WM, holding spatial WM constant Visuospatial sketchpad can be separated into visual and spatial components Woodman & Luck (2004) Dual-task procedure Manipulated spatial WM, holding visual WM constant 8

9 Capacity (WMC) Executive Attention Top-down, attentional control to meet specific task demands Simple span tasks Memory span Digit Span Complex span tasks Operation Span (OSPAN) Counting Span (CSPAN) BEANS ARROW TURTLE??? (6 x 2) 3 = 8 BEANS (4 x 2) + 1 = 9 ARROW (1 x 7) 2 = 4 TURTLE??? Capacity (WMC) Conway, Cowan and Bunting (2001) WMC and Cocktail Party Effect Compared High Spans with Low Spans Capacity (WMC) Kane et al. (2001) Examined WMC and controlled attention Prosaccade task Antisaccade task P + Prosaccade + + P Antisaccade 9

10 Multitasking Multitasking We constantly multitask Is this good? Watch out for fountains Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) Ophir et al. (2009) Media multitasking index (MMI) Compared high and low multitaskers on several cognitive tasks Does multitasking help? Multitasking Ophir et al. (2009) Visual short term memory task (change detection task) Multitasking Ophir et al. (2009) 2-back and 3-back tasks High multi-taskers Have more hits Have more intrusions 10