Biology. A Guide to the Natural World. Chapter 27 Lecture Outline Communication and Control 1: The Nervous System. Fifth Edition.
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1 Biology A Guide to the Natural World Chapter 27 Lecture Outline Communication and Control 1: The Nervous System Fifth Edition David Krogh
2 The Nervous System Nervous tissue is composed of two kinds of cells: Neurons: transmit nervous system messages. Glial cells: support neurons and modify their signaling.
3 The Nervous System The two major divisions of the human nervous system are: The central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes all the neural tissue outside the CNS plus the sensory organs.
4 (a) The nervous system has two components (b) How these two components interact Central nervous system brain Central nervous system (CNS) information processing spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) sensory information travels in afferent division motor information travels in efferent division, which includes somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system sensory receptors in eyes nose, etc. sympathetic division parasympathetic division Peripheral nervous system skeletal muscle effectors cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands Figure 27.1
5 Divisions of the Nervous System The PNS has an afferent division, which brings sensory information to the CNS; and an efferent division, which carries action (motor) commands to the body s effectors muscles and glands.
6 Divisions of the Nervous System Within the PNS s efferent division are two subsystems: The somatic nervous system, which provides voluntary control over skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, which provides involuntary regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
7 Divisions of the Nervous System The autonomic system is further divided into the sympathetic division, which generally has stimulatory effects; and the parasympathetic division, which generally facilitates routine maintenance activities.
8 27.2 Cells of the Nervous System
9 Cells of the Nervous System There are three types of neurons: sensory neurons motor neurons interneurons
10 Cells of the Nervous System (a) Three types of neurons sensory neuron" interneuron" motor neuron" afferent neuron" neuron within central nervous system" efferent" neuron" effector (muscle)" (b) Anatomy of a neuron" direction" of nerve"signal" axon" synaptic terminals" dendrites" cell body" Figure 27.2
11 (a) A myelinated axon" myelin nodes" glial cells" glial cell nucleus" myelin covering" axon" glial cell cytoplasm" (b) Anatomy of a nerve" nerve" blood vessels" connective tissue" axons" Figure 27.3
12 Cells of the Nervous System A nerve is a bundle of axons in the PNS that transmits information to or from the CNS.
13 27.3 Nervous-System Signaling
14 Nervous System Communication Nervous system communication can be conceptualized as working through a twostep process: 1. signal movement down a neuron s axon 2. signal movement from this axon to a second cell across a structure known as a synapse
15 sending neuron" receiving cell" synaptic cleft" synaptic terminal" arrival of nerve impulse" initiation of new impulse" mitochondrion" vesicles containing neurotransmitter neurotransmitter molecules (such receptors" as acetylcholine)" Figure 27.5
16 27.4 The Spinal Cord
17 (a)" brain" cervical spinal nerves" thoracic spinal nerves" lumbar spinal nerves" (b)" white matter" ventral root" gray matter" spinal nerve" sacral spinal nerves" dorsal root ganglion" central canal" dorsal root" tip of spinal cord" Figure 27.6
18 1. Stimulus (tapping) arrives and receptor is activated." receptor" afferent" signal" 2. The signal from the receptor" reaches a sensory neuron" cell body in the dorsal root" ganglion." spinal" cord" stimulus" reflex" arc" effector" efferent" signal" motor" neuron" 3. The signal arrives at a sensory" neuron/motor neuron synapse" in the spinal cord. Information" processing takes place, prompting" a signal to be sent through the" motor neuron." response" 4. The motor neuron signal stimulates" the effector (the quadriceps muscles)" to contract. Note that CNS processing for this reaction was" handled entirely in the spinal cord; the brain was not involved." Figure 27.7
19 27.5 The Autonomic Nervous System
20 The Autonomic Nervous System The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is often called the fight-orflight system because it generally prepares the body to deal with emergencies.
21 The Autonomic Nervous System The parasympathetic division is often called the rest-and-digest system because it conserves energy and promotes digestive activities. Most organs receive input from both systems.
22 Parasympathetic division (rest and digest) Sympathetic division (fight or flight) constricts pupil stimulates salivation slows heart cranial nerves dilates pupil inhibits salivation accelerates heart cervical nerves constricts breathing facilitates breathing stimulates digestion thoracic nerves inhibits digestion stimulates gallbladder contracts bladder lumbar nerves sacral nerves stimulates release of glucose secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline relaxes bladder stimulates sex organs inhibits sex organs Figure 27.8
23 27.6 The Human Brain
24 The Human Brain There are six major regions in the adult brain: cerebrum cerebellum thalamus hypothalamus midbrain pons medulla oblongata
25 (a)" cerebral" cortex" cerebrum" cerebellum" (b)" thalamus" hypothalamus" pituitary" gland" brainstem" midbrain" pons" medulla" oblongata" Figure 27.9
26 The Human Brain The hypothalamus is critical to regulating drives and maintaining homeostasis, in part through its regulation of hormonal release. The brainstem is a collective term containing: The midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
27 The Human Brain The midbrain helps maintain muscle tone and posture. The pons serves primarily to relay messages between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata helps regulate such involuntary functions as breathing and digestion.
28 Table 27.1" Major Regions of the Human Brain" Region" Location" Functions In" Cerebrum" Cerebellum" Thalamus" Hypothalamus" Midbrain" Pons" Medulla oblongata" Topmost portion of brain; fills most" of the skull and is draped over other" regions of the brain" At the base of the skull, between the" cerebrum and medulla oblongata" Beneath cerebrum, covered by it" Beneath thalamus, above brainstem" Upper brainstem" Mid-brainstem" Lower brainstem" Reasoning, planning, memory, processing" of sensory information; issuance of volun-" tary motor commands" Refinement of motor commands; mainte-" nance of balance" Reception of sensory information and" transmission of it to the cerebral cortex" for processing" Regulation of drives and the maintenance" of homeostasis, often by interaction with" the hormonal system" Maintenance of muscle tone and posture" through control of involuntary muscle" responses" Transmission of messages between" the cerebrum and cerebellum" Regulation of breathing, blood pressure," and digestion"
29 gustatory" cortex" olfactory" cortex" somatosensory cortex" thalamus" auditory" cortex" visual" cortex" smell" vision" amygdala" hypothalamus" brainstem" hearing" hippocampus" taste" taste touch senses" touch senses Figure 27.10
30 27.7 Our Senses
31 (a) Touch receptors in the skin" hair" free nerve endings" (pain, temperature)" tactile receptor" epidermis" tactile receptor" dermis" hair follicle" receptor" Pacinian" corpuscle" tactile receptor" (b) How one touch receptor works" interior of nerve ending" pressure" stretch" stretch" stretch" Figure 27.11
32 27.9 Smell
33 Our Sense of Smell (a)" (b)" olfactory" bulb" to olfactory cortex, amygdala," and hypothalamus" olfactory bulb" olfactory tract" supporting" cells" olfactory" receptor" cell" odorants" olfactory" epithelium" odorants" mucous" layer" cilia" Figure 27.12
34 27.10 Taste
35 papilla" taste buds" connective" tissue" salivary glands" muscle layer" papillae" taste bud" taste pore" microvilli" taste" connective" cell" tissue" dendrites" Figure 27.13
36 Our Sense of Taste The neurons that receive input from taste cells vary in their response to different tastants. The brain makes sense of the pattern of input it gets from these neurons, thus yielding the large number of tastes we experience.
37 27.11 Hearing
38 (a) Anatomy of the ear" malleus" incus" stapes" tympanic" oval window" membrane" cochlea" nerve" ear canal" outer ear" middle ear" inner ear" (b) From air vibration to nerve signal" 2. The tympanic membrane" vibrates the three bones of" the middle ear; the malleus," incus and stapes." 2" 1. Sound waves enter" through the ear" canal and vibrate" sound" 1" the tympanic" membrane." 3" 3. The vibration of the stapes" focuses the sound-wave" vibration on the membrane" of the oval window." 4" perception of sound" 5" 4. The oval window s vibrations" cause fluid vibrations within the" coiled, tubular cochlea (shown" elongated here for illustrative" purposes)." 5. These fluid vibrations cause" cells within the cochlea to" release a neurotransmitter," which triggers a nerve signal" to the brain." (c) How fluid triggers nerve signal" vestibular" duct" cochlear" duct" tympanic" duct" nerve" tectorial membrane" hair cells" basilar membrane" tectorial membrane" nucleus" 3. As the hair cells contact the" tectorial membrane, cilia on" them bend. This change in" position causes trap door " channels in the hair cells to" open, which allows" potassium ions (K + ) to flow" into them." 4. This influx triggers an influx" of calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) at the" base of the hair cells, which" in turn causes the cells to" release a neurotransmitter." 1. Seen in cross section," the cochlea has vestibular" and tympanic ducts, in" which fluid is vibrating." 2. This vibration shakes the" basilar membrane, pushing" hair cells on it up against the" overlying tectorial membrane." 5. The neurotransmitter is" received by adjacent" dendrites and a nerve" signal is sent to the brain." Figure 27.14
39 27.12 Vision
40 vitreous body" cornea" retina" iris" pupil" lens" optic nerve" Figure 27.15
41 (a) Normal vision" light rays converge on the retina " (b) Farsighted" vision" light rays converge behind" the retina " (c) Nearsighted" vision" light rays converge in front of the retina " Figure 27.16
42 Our Sense of Vision Light signals are converted to nervous system signals by cells in the retina called photoreceptors, which come in two varieties: rods and cones. Rods function in dim light but are not sensitive to color. Cones function best in bright light but are sensitive to color.
43
44 Our Sense of Vision These photoreceptors have pigments embedded in membranes within them. When light strikes a pigment, it changes pigment shape in a way that prompts a cascade of chemical reactions that results in neurotransmitter release being inhibited between the rod or cone and its adjoining connecting cell. This lack of release sends the signal, Photoreceptor stimulated here.
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