Chapter 33: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

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1 Chapter 33: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems AP Curriculum Alignment The immune system is one of the human systems that is detailed in Big Idea 2and Chapter 33 provides these details. Programmed cell death of infected cells is also one on the methods that is used by the immune system to maintain homeostasis. Cellular communication plays an important role in the immune response. The ability of cells to transmit and store information is and important facet of Big Idea 3. Antigenpresenting cells must make cell-to-cell contact to communicate with helper and killer T-cells. Big Idea 4 explains that biological systems interact to produce complex properties. One method of interaction is to vary the way molecular units are assembled. MHC proteins and their presentation of antigens vary greatly as do the antibodies that are produced by the immune system to neutralize pathogens. Chapter 33 explains the variability in these proteins. ALIGNMENT OF CONTENT TO THE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis. Enduring understanding (EU) 2.D: Growth and dynamic homeostasis of a biological system are influenced by changes in the system s environment. Essential knowledge (EK) 2.D.3: Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis. a. Disruptions at the molecular and cellular levels affect the health of the organism. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: Physiological responses to toxic substances Dehydration Immunological responses to pathogens, toxins and allergens Essential knowledge (EK) 2.D.4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis. a. Plants, invertebrates and vertebrates have multiple, nonspecific immune responses. Students should be able to demonstrate understanding of the above concept by using an illustrative example such as: Invertebrate immune systems have nonspecific response mechanisms, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses. Plant defenses against pathogens include molecular recognition systems with systemic responses; infection triggers chemical responses that destroy infected and adjacent cells, thus localizing the effects. Vertebrate immune systems have nonspecific and nonheritable defense mechanisms against pathogens. 470 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

2 b. Mammals use specific immune responses triggered by natural or artificial agents that disrupt dynamic homeostasis. Evidence of student learning is a demonstrated understanding of each of the following: 1. The mammalian immune system includes two types of specific responses: cell mediated and humoral. 2. In the cell-mediated response, cytotoxic T cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, target intracellular pathogens when antigens are displayed on the outside of the cells. 3. In the humoral response, B cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, produce antibodies against specific antigens. 4. Antigens are recognized by antibodies to the antigen. 5. Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells, and each antibody is specific to a particular antigen. 6. A second exposure to an antigen results in a more rapid and enhanced immune response. Memorization of the structures of specific antibodies is beyond the scope of the course and the AP Exam. Enduring understanding (EU) 2.E: Many biological processes involved in growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis include temporal regulation and coordination. Essential knowledge 2.E.1: Timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for the normal development of an organism, and these events are regulated by a variety of mechanisms. c. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays a role in the normal development and differentiation. Students should be able to demonstrate understanding of the above concept by using an illustrative example such as: Morphogenesis of fingers and toes Immune function C. elegans development Flower development Names of the specific stages of embryonic development are beyond the scope of the course and the AP Exam. Big Idea 3: Living Systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. Enduring understanding (EU) 3.D: Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals. Essential knowledge (EK) 3.D.2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. a. Cells communicate by cell-to-cell contact. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: Immune cells interact by cell-cell contact, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), helper T-cells and killer T-cells. [See also 2.D.4] Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

3 Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties. Essential knowledge (EU) 4.C.1: Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions. a. Variations within molecular classes provide cells and organisms with a wider range of functions. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: Different types of phospholipids in cell membranes Different types of hemoglobin MHC proteins Chlorophylls Molecular diversity of antibodies in response to an antigen Concepts covered in Chapter 33 also align to the learning objectives that provide a foundation for the course, an inquiry-based laboratory experience, class activities, and AP exam questions. Each learning objective (LO) merges required content with one or more of the seven science practices (SP), and one activity or lab can encompass several learning objectives. The learning objectives and science practices from the Curriculum Framework that pertain to the lymphatic and immune systems are shown in the table below. Note that other learning objectives may apply as well. LO 2.28 The student is able to use representations or models to analyze quantitatively and qualitatively the effects of disruptions to dynamic homeostasis in biological systems. LO 2.29 The student can create representations and models to describe immune responses. LO 2.30 The student can create representations or models to describe nonspecific immune defenses in plants and animals. LO 4.22 The student is able to construct explanations based on evidence of how variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions. Key Concepts Summary Immune system evolution During periods of stress, slime molds form slugs that are multicellular. o These slugs have been found to contain cells that circulate throughout the slug, engulfing bacteria and toxins. o Scientists believe that human phagocytic white blood cells may have evolved from these types of cells. Fruit flies exhibit innate immunity which can recognize common microbial invaders quickly but shows no signs of an increased response on repeated exposure to the same invader. Vertebrate animals exhibit innate and adaptive immunity, characterized by the 472 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

4 production of a very large number of diverse receptors on the surface of specialized white blood cells (such as B and T lymphocytes in humans). The vertebrate immune system of fish, amphibians, retiles birds, and mammals has evolved an ability to respond to the continuing evolution of pathogenic microbes and other threats to our health. The lymphatic system The lymphatic system has three main functions that contribute to homeostasis: o Lymphatic capillaries absorb excess interstitial fluid and return it to the bloodstream. o In the small intestine, lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fats in the form of lipoproteins and transport them to the bloodstream. o The lymphoid organs and lymphatic vessels are sites of production and distribution of lymphocytes, which help defend the body against pathogens. The lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and red bone marrow are the main lymphoid organs that assist immunity. The human immune system The human immune system is the capability of removing or killing foreign substances, pathogens, and cancer cells from the body. The immune system consists of two parts: the innate immune response which is fully functional without prior exposure and the adaptive immunity which is initiated and amplified with exposure. Innate immune defenses include the following: o physical and chemical barriers Physical barriers include the skin and the mucous membranes lining the respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts. o the inflammatory response The inflammatory response includes the release of histamine which causes capillaries to dilate. This brings more white blood cells to the area to combat possible bacteria. Several white blood cells of the immune system are phagocytic and engulf bacteria and viruses such as neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells. o phagocytes and natural killer cells Natural killer (NK) cells are large, granular lymphocytes that kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact. o protective proteins, such as complement and interferons Complement proteins can enhance inflammation, increase phagocytosis, and can form a membrane that attacks bacteria and viruses. Interferons are proteins that interfere with viral replication. Adaptive immunity, sometimes called the acquired immunity, depend primarily on the activities of B cells and T cells. o Diversification occurs during the lymphocyte maturation process to so great Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

5 an extent that there are specific B cells and/or T cells for almost every possible antigen. o The clonal selection theory states that the antigen receptor of each B cell or T cell binds to only a single type of antigen. o In adaptive immunity, B cells, helper T (T H ) cells, and cytotoxic T (T C ) cells respond to specific antigens by dividing and differentiating. When activated by antigens, B cells differentiate into antibodysecreting plasma cells, T H cells become cytokine-secreting cells, and T C cells are able to destroy virus-infected or cancer cells. Each cell type also produces memory cells that can respond more quickly to a subsequent exposure to the same antigen. Active immunity occurs when an individual produces his or her own immune response against an antigen. Immunization is able to stimulate the production of antibodies to a pathogen by using a nonvirulent form of that pathogen. Passive immunity occurs when an individual receives another person s antibodies or immune cells such as a newborn baby that receives them through a mother s placenta and breast milk. Several faulty genes can cause severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) in which both T cells and B cells are either lacking completely or not functioning well enough to protect the body from a variety of infections. o An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body s own cells or molecules o The MHC proteins of different individuals differ by the sequence of their amino acids. o The immune system will attack any foreign tissue that bears MHC antigens that are different from those of the individual. o Drugs are used to surpress the immune system when organ transplants occur. o HIV infection causes AIDS, which is an example of a secondary immunodeficiency. This disorder is not genetic but is acquired after birth due to a viral infection. Key Terms adaptive immunity allergies anaphylactic shock asthma autoimmune disease complement delayed allergic response dendritic cells eosinophils histamine immediate allergic response Inflammatory response innate immunity interferons macrophages mast cells natural killer cells neutrophils 474 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

6 Teaching Strategies Class time: Three 45-minute class periods Day 1: Lecture on the lymphatic system and the history of the immune system, humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity 25 minutes Activity 1, immune system game 20 minutes. Day 2: Lecture on innate and adaptive portions of the immune system. 20 minutes Activity 2 on cells of the immune system 25 minutes Day 3: Lecture on passive and innate immunity and autoimmune diseases 20 minutes Activity 3 on pathogens, antibodies, and vaccines 25 minutes Suggested Approaches Students will learn information about the immune system through activities rather than lectures but students will need both of these approaches for comprehensive knowledge about the immune system. As will most units, lecture followed by activities may be the best approach. Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls Many students do not recognize the lymphatic system but have some knowledge of lymphatic organs such as tonsils and lymph nodes. It may be hard for students to realize that capillary beds contain arterial capillaries, venous capillaries, as well as lymphatic capillaries. There is not a great deal of emphasis on the lymphatic system in the AP curriculum but an understanding of how the cells of the immune system interact with the lymphatic system is important for students to fully understand the operation of the immune system. Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

7 Suggested Activities Activity 1: Immune System Game You will need: APC cards (Antigen Presenting Cell) Antigen shapes (5 different shapes) T-helper cells 5 B-cell cards (one for each antigen) 5 Containers with each antigen on it Have 3-4 students wear the APC cards, 5 students with the B-cells cards and the rest can be T-helper cells. The APC s will look for as many different antigen shapes set about the room for a set amount of time like 1 minute (like an Easter egg hunt). When time is called the APC s must find the appropriate T-helper cell for any antigen they found. Once they find an antigen/t-cell match, the T-helper keeps the antigen and now must find the correct B-cell. The B-cells are also moving about the room looking for T-helper cells. Once the T-helper finds the appropriate B-cell the B-cell begins to make antibodies which can be crumpled paper, large beads, or anything that you can get a fair number of. The B-cells must shoot the antibodies into a container- the size of the container will depend on what you have them shoot. The containers should have the antigen symbols on them so the B-cells know where to shoot. The team wins that has the most antibodies in the can. 476 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

8 Activity 2: Cells of the Immune System Download the worksheet that accompanies this Click and Learn Exercise by HHMI Biointeractive. Students will complete the worksheet as they work through the website below. Activity 3: Pathogens, Antibodies, and Vaccines Science Take Out has an immune system kit that shows the adaptive immune system and provides tactile models for student learning. Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

9 Student Edition Chapter Review Answers Answers to Assess Questions 1. a; 2. d; 3. c; 4. b; 5. c; 6. d; 7. c; 8. d; 9. b; 10. c; 11. d; 12. b; 13. c; 14. IgG; 15. IgM; 16. IgA; 17. IgE; 18. d; 19. d; 20. d; 21. b; 22. c; 23. d Answers to Applying the Big Ideas Questions 1. When a child experiences a bacterial infection, rapid recognition and specialized destruction of foreign antigens commences. Draw a representation or model to describe the adaptive response of the child s immune system to extracellular microbes. Essential Knowledge Science Practice Learning Objective 2.D.4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis. 1.1: The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. 1.2: The student can describe representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. 2.29: The student can create representations and models to describe immune responses. 4 points maximum. Representations should be clearly and definitively marked and labeled with legible and assessable explanations. (1 point) Representations describing immune responses may include (1 point each): Antigens from the extracellular microbe (can be represented on the surface of the pathogen or free) bind to the B-cell recptor (BCR) on a B cell. The B cell (in the presence of cytokines from T cells) then divides, making many clones of itself. The clones may become memory B cells or large plasma cells. Memory B cells display Y-shaped antibodies and remain for years in the system. Plasma cells secrete antibodies specific to the antigen and then undergo apoptosis at the end of infection. After phagocytizing a pathogen, APCs break the pathogen aparten and a fragment of the pathogen is then displayed in association with an MHC class II protein on the cell s surface. IT can then bind to and select any T H cell that is appropriately matched. The T cell divides, making many clones of itself. The clones may become cytotoxic T cells or long-lived memory T cells. 478 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

10 Cytotoxic T-cells display T cell receptors (TCR) and bind with the antigen and MHC class I molecule. Helper T-cells display T cell receptors (TCR) and bind with the antigens on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and MHC class II molecule. Antigens and antibodies (shaped like a Y) display a lock-and-key fit. End result: neutralization, bacterial lysis, inflammation, and memory 2. Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells. Explain this phenomena using TWO examples found between immune cells. Be sure to include in your explanation which cells are communicating, and the result of the interaction. Essential Knowledge Science Practice Learning Objective 3.D.2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. 6.2: The student can construct explanations of phenomena based on evidence produced through scientific practices. 3.34: The student is able to construct explanations of cell communication through cell-to-cell direct contact or through chemical signaling. 2 points maximum. Explanations of cell communication through cell-to-cell direct contact may include (1 point each): Natural killer cells are large, granular lymphocytes that kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact. They seek out cells that lack a particular type of MHC-1 (major histocompatibility complex) on their surface. If the pathogen lacks these MHC-1 molecules, they may be recognized by NK (natural killer) cells, which then induce them to undergo apoptosis. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) must make cell-to-cell contact to communicate with helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells. After breaking a pathogen apart, they display a fragment of the pathogen in association with an MHC class II protein on the cell s surface, which can bind to a T H cell that has a TCR capable of combining with that particular combination. This stimulates division. Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

11 3. The human body s immune system is composed of a variety of cells and antibody proteins that are able to carry out a number of roles in both innate and adaptive immune defenses. a) Describe THREE types of cells or antibody proteins utilized by the human body b) Explain how variation in molecular units of each of the types of cells described in part (a) provides the cells in the immune system with a wider range of functions. Essential Knowledge Science Practice Learning Objective 4.C.1: Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions. 6.2: The student can construct explanations of phenomena based on evidence produced through scientific practices. 4.22: The student is able to construct explanations based on evidence of how variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions. 3 points maximum. Variations in immune system cells provides a wider range of functions may include: Description of cells (1 point each): Phagocytic cells (white blood cells) of the innate defense system contain granules in their cytoplasm. Explanation of differentiated function as a result of molecular unit variation (1 point each): These cells contain antimicrobial peptides and enzymes that can kill and digest bacteria, allowing these cells to engulf and digest relatively large particles, such as viruses and bacteria. B cells can differentiate (if stimulated by helper T cells) into plasma cells with extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum. B cells can differentiate (if stimulated by helper T cells) into memory B cells that contain specific BCRs that will recognize specific antigens and promote immediate response in case of future infection. The extensive rough ER allows for the mass production and secretion of specific antibodies. The BCRs are very specific and will recognize specific antigens and promote immediate recognition and response in case of future infection. 480 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

12 Antibodies are Y-shaped protein molecules with constant regions along the trunk of the Y and variable regions at the tips of the Y to form two antigen-binding sites. While there are three different types of T cells, each has a unique T-cell receptor (TCR) that can recognize and antigen fragment in combination with an MHC molecule. Helper T cells recognize and respond only to antigens presented by specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs) with MHC class II proteins on their surface. While there are three different types of T cells, each has a unique T-cell receptor (TCR) that can recognize and antigen fragment in combination with an MHC molecule. Cytotoxic T cells recognize and respond only to antigens presented by various cell types with the MHC class I proteins on their surface. Additionally, T c cells contain storage vacuoles that are filled with perforin and enzymes. The variable regions allow antigens to bind only to particular antigens as they combine at the antibody s antigenbinding site in a lock-and-key manner. This also allows the body to have a specific response to pathogens, instead of only relying on the general response of the innate defense system. Helper T cells regulate adaptive immunity by influencing other cells and secreting a variety of cytokines and becoming memory T cells, while Cytotoxic T cells attack and kill virusinfected cells and cancer cells using the perforin to perforate the plasma membrane of the target and pouring enzymes into the abnormal cell to force apoptosis. Answers to Applying the Science Practices Questions Think Critically 1. For patient 1, the virus amount sharply decreased but then increased to the original measurement. For Patient 2, the virus amount decreased and stayed down. For Patient 3, the virus amount slowly increased. 2. More research is necessary. Passive immune therapy was effective for 1 out of 3 patients. Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

13 Additional Questions for AP Practice 1. Select the best description of nonspecific immune defenses in plants and animals. A) Nonspecific immune responses always involve the production of antibodies. B) Nonspecific immune responses are only present in animals. C) Nonspecific immune responses are activated by any pathogen. D) Nonspecific immune responses only kill infected cells and never kill adjacent cells. 2. Describe the stages of the inflammatory response of the human immune system. 3. Describe nonspecific immune responses. 482 Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter 33

14 Answers to Additional Questions for AP Practice 1. The correct answer is C. 2. Injured tissue cells release histamine and other chemicals which dilate capillaries and increase blood flow; macrophages and dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens and release cytokines; neutrophils and monocytes phagocytize pathogens; blood clotting walls off capillaries and prevents blood loss. 3. Innate immune defenses, which are nonspecific, include the following: physical and chemical barriers, the inflammatory response, phagocytes and natural killer cells, protective proteins, such as complement and interferons. Mader, Biology, 12 th Edition, Chapter

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