Viral Evasion Strategies

Transcription

1 Viral Evasion Strategies Lecture 15 Virology W3310/4310 Spring 2013 Don t look back, something might be gaining on you! -SATCHEL PAIGE

2 Host vs. Virus What one does to the other? Evolution of strategies to evade innate and adaptive cell responses to infection - goal: survival, reproduction and release 2

3 Strategies for Evasion Overwhelm the host Enter parenterally - Anyway other than the gut - Why? Disarm host defenses 3

4 Acute Infections When to treat? Symptoms 4

5 Virus Offense Meets Host Defense 5

6 Evasion VIPRS - viral proteins that interfere with antigen presentation Disarm innate immunity Regulate MHC molecules - responsible for antigen presentation Alter antigen presentation Interfere with CTL and NK cells Go and hide More on this later 6

7 Host Defenses Innate immunity, responds to everything Intranuclear modulatory molecules Immune system, recognizes signal, amplifies signal and controls invader Interferons induce an antiviral state PKR Complement punches holes in membranes NK and CTLs Macrophages and neutrophils 7

8 Adaptive Immunity A memory response Activated in response to the innate immune system Results in clonal expansion of B and T cells - requires CD4 + Th1 and Th2 cells Generation of Cytotoxic T cells and antibody production 8

9 Inflammatory Response Occurs in response to necrosis Results in release of cytokines and chemokines Recruits neutrophils and macrophages to site of damage 9

10 Cytokines Primary output of innate immune response Rapid induction in response to infection Control inflammation Induce antiviral state, IFNs Regulate immune system 10

11 Viral Response Virokines, it looks like, smells like, so don t step in it - these mimetics bind and sequester host receptor molecules Viroceptors - soluble cytokine receptors - divert cytokines from initiating response Sabotage innate and adaptive defense without affecting growth in cell culture 11

12 Products that Counter IFN Why? - Without IFN host has a reduced ability to contain viral infections dsrna binding proteins - NS1 from Influenza - E3h from Poxviruses - US11 from HSV Ad VA-RNA - A dsrna decoy that binds PKR 12

13 Modulators of the IFN Response 13

14 Regulators of ISGs ND10s are composed of host proteins that repress virus replication - innate nuclear defense - epigenetic regulation of virus replication - PML, an important ND10 constituent Some Herpesviruses targets PML for proteolysis 14

15 Dissolution of PML 15

16 Translational Regulation Viruses modify host to favor synthesis of their own proteins IFNs establish an anti-viral state Induction of Protein Kinase R and other eif2α kinases - inhibit translation - consequences for virus replication 16

17 Innate Defense Targets 17

18 PKR Activated by binding dsrna Autophosphorylates at S51 Phosphorylates eif2α - forms a very tight ternary complex with GDP- eif2b - blocks recycling - translation is arrested 18

19 How Viruses Counteract Pkr Virus proteins have evolved to thwart host antivirus defenses HSV US11 blocks Pkr activation by binding to it Adenovirus VA RNAs bind tightly to Pkr - dsrna decoy HPV E6 and HSV γ34.5 dephosphorylate eif2α - γ34.5 interacts with PP1a redirecting it to eif2α 19

20 Phosphorylation of eif2α HSV US11 Ad VA RNAs HPV E6 HSV γ

21 Viral Modulators of Interferon Inhibit IFN synthesis IFN Receptor decoys Inhibition of IFN signaling Inhibit Interferon Stimulated Genes 21

22 Autophagy a catabolic process involving degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery AUTOPHAGY Autophagy induction Starvation Growth factor deprivation Immune signals: IFN- TNF TLRs PKR-elF2 kinase Jnk FADD Immunity-related GTPases Autophagy suppression Nutrient abundance Insulin-Akt-TOR signaling Immune signals: IL-4 IL-13 FADD Immunity-related GTPases Vesicle nucleation Isolation membrane Vesicle elongation Docking & fusion Autophagosome Atg10 E2 Atg5 Atg12 PE LC3 -Gly LC3 Atg3 E2 Atg4 LC3 Lysosome Class III PI(3)K complex Other regulators Beclin 1 Atg14 Bcl-2 Bcl-XL Vps34 Vps15 Ubiquitin-like conjugation systems Atg7 E1 P Atg12 Atg16L1 Atg12 Atg12 Atg5 Atg5 Atg5 Atg16L1 Atg16L1 Atg16L1 Atg16L1 Atg5 Atg5 Atg12 Atg12 Vesicle breakdown & degradation Autolysosome LC3 Figure 1 The autophagy pathway and its regulation. The autophagy pathway proceeds through a series of stages, including nucleation of the autophagic vesicle, elongation and closure of the autophagosome membrane to envelop cytoplasmic constituents, docking of the autophagosome with the lysosome, and 22

23 23

24 Stimulation and Inhibition of Autophagosome Formation Mock HCMV UV-HCMV 4 h LC3 an autophagy marker 8 h 24 h pp65 HCMV protein 24

25 How Does HCMV TRS1 Work? TRS1 an Inhibitor ds RNA Binding Domain PKR Binding Domain Beclin Binding Domain TRS1 (1-795) TRS1 Binds PKR and ds RNA Innate immune response is inhibited Interacts with and sequesters Beclin Inhibits autophagy 25

26 Apoptosis Host escape mechanism leading to cell death and inflammation by cysteine proteases (Caspases) - induction of cytokines - infected cells release proteins that are subsequently presented by MHCII - activation of CTLs 26

27 Apoptosis Catabolic process involving degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery Host controls induction and suppression Antiapoptotic: BCL-2 family members block mitochondrial translocation Proapoptotic: BAX and BAD cause induction of a caspase cascade by release of mitochondrial cytochrome C 27

28 Characteristics of Apoptosis Cell organelles are dismantled Vesicle formation and membrane blebbing DNA is cleaved Phosphatidylserine, annexin appear on cell surfaces 28

29 Apoptosis Perturb the cell cycle and apoptosis is activated - cell falls apart and virus fails to complete replication cycle Block it and virus can complete replication 29

30 Characteristics of Apoptosis Membrane blebbing and apoptotic body formation 30

31 Characteristics of Apoptosis HSV ICP27 prevents DNA fragmentation 31

32 Why Block Apoptosis? Why are cells induced after infection? - activation of quiescent cell machinery - checkpoint controls respond Virus responds to complete replication - failure leads to decreased yields Inhibit release of virus Antigens - eliminate T cell activation - evade immune response 32

33 How to Block It HCMV transcribes a noncoding RNA (β2.7) that binds a mitochondrial protein that triggers apoptosis AD E1B binds BAX preventing caspase activation (intrinsic) AD E3 blocks Fas (Death Receptor) - induced apoptosis (extrinsic) 33

34 HIV Evades the Rig I Innate Immune Response 34

35 HIV Sequesters RIG-I to Lysosomes Where It Is Degraded GFP-Protease RIG-I LAMP-1 Merge GFP RIG-I Cytoplasmic GFP-Protease RIG-I Perinuclear GFP-Protease + Saquinavir RIG-I Perinuclear 35

36 Apobec A protein family whose function is to edit RNA - an ISG - deaminates C U Intrinsic antiviral Blocks replication of HIV, HBV and Measles Incorporated into HIV virus particles - Is the host a step ahead here? 36

37 How Apobec Inhibits HIV Replication C s in - strand DNA are deaminated C U transitions result in GC AT pairs - TGG (W) codons become TAA (Stop) U containing DNA is attacked by U-DNA glycosidase - generates abasic site and becomes a target for endonucleases 37

38 How HIV Survives Apobec HIV encodes Vif which is incorporated in the virion Vif interacts in a species specific manner to bind Apobec and target it to the proteasome 38

39 Humoral & Cell Immunity MHC II MHC I 39

40 T Cell Surface Molecules and Ligands Two signal systems, MHC and accessory molecules and their ligands - lead to T cell activation 40

41 41

42 Th2 Th1 42

43 Effects of Stimulating Cell Division Clonal expansion - increases # of cell responders T cells kill cells bearing foreign peptide or protein - CD4 + Th recognize MHC II bound peptides - CD8 + Tc recognize MHC I bound peptides In response to cytokines from Th1 cells CD8 + become mature CTLs In response to cytokines from Th2 cells B cell synthesizes Ab (becomes a plasma cell) B cell can also become a memory cell 43

44 Adaptive Immunity Humoral Cell-mediated, recognition mediated by: - membrane bound Ab on B cells and/or TCR - Ag presented by MHC I on all cells - Ag presented by MHC II on macrophages or dendritic cells 44

45 Immune Modulation Dendritic cells are often compromised by virus infection resulting in suppression of the immune response by: - interference with recruitment - impairment of Ag uptake or processing - interference with maturation - inability to migrate to lymphoid tissue - failure to activate T cells 45

46 Remediation of T Cell Response EBV encodes an IL 10 homologue that suppresses the Th1 response KSHV elaborates a horde of virokines (cytokine mimetics) that provide a refuge from immune surveillance 46

47 Natural Killer Cells I IR>>AR No antigen receptors Secrete cytokines Kill cells lacking MHC I on the surface by recognizing missing self ADCC, NKs bind to IgG coated cells, release perforins and granzymes triggering apoptosis 47

48 Virus Modulation of NK Cells 1-Mimetic 2-Downregulation & substitution 3-Block activating proteins 4-Inhibition of NK-stimulating cytokines or antagonist of activating chemokines antagonist 5-Block receptor or kill cell 48

49 Virus Modulation of NK Cells MHC I homologs Regulators of MHC I Release of Viroceptors block engagement of activating receptor Antagonist (Virokine) of activating receptor Infection of NK cell can lead to disruption of function or cell death 49

50 Virus Modulation of NK Cells HCV E2 protein binds CD81 on NK cells to block activation - don t recognize infected cells HIV nef affects cell surface expression of some MHC I molecules but not HLA-E (cell is still protected) Poxviruses express proteins that bind IL-12 to inhibit IFN-γ production by NKs 50

51 Exogenous Antigen Presentation post-golgi vesicle 51

52 MHC I Presentation 52

53 Fine Structure of MHC I Presentation Viral proteins interfere with MHC I mediated antigen presentation Just how many targets are there? 53

54 Intercession of TAP Transport HSV HCMV EBV X peptide-binding X ATP-binding X ATP & Peptide-binding 54

55 Intercession with Tapasin Adeno HCMV X Blocks MHC I Tapasin Interaction Preventing Peptide Loading 55 X Interacts with Tapasin Resulting in MHC I Degradation

56 Cytomegaloviruses a Paradigm for Interference with MHC UL83 tegument protein inhibits proteasome processing by P* US6 inhibits MHC I translocation to the ER US3 inhibits MHC I transport across ER US2 & 11 force MHC I to cytoplasm UL18 is a MHC I mimetic thought to downregulate NK and CTLs 56

57 MHC Intercession Summary Viruses have to cope with their hosts For the host to succeed viral antigens must be presented on the cell surface Viruses have identified many points of intercession and defined how MHC I presents antigen 57

58 Immune Modulation Strategies Secreted Modulators Stealth Antigenic hypervariability Bypass or kill lymphocytes Block adaptive immune response Inhibit complement Modulate apoptosis Modulate autophagy Modulators on infected cell surface Interfere with pattern recognition receptors 58