3/17/2014. The Lymphatic System. Lymphatic System Overview Lymphatic Vessels and Flow of Lymph Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs
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1 The Lymphatic System Lymphatic System Overview Lymphatic Vessels and Flow of Lymph Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs Overview of the Lymphatic System Slide 2 Major Components of the Lymphatic System (fig. 20.1) LYMPH - an extracellular fluid (ECF) similar to plasma; ECF is found in several places in the body: body tissues (ECF = interstitial fluid), blood (ECF = plasma), and lymphatic vessels (ECF = lymph) LYMPHATIC VESSELS - a network of vessels that carry lymph throughout the body, and eventually to the venous blood system LYMPHATIC TISSUE - protective tissue scattered throughout the body; lymphatic tissue is a specialized connective tissue containing large numbers of lymphocytes LYMPHATIC ORGANS - e.g. the spleen and thymus LYMPHOCYTES - white blood cells involved with immunity The Lymphatic System and Cardiovascular System are collectively called the Circulatory System; the lymphatic system circulates lymph and the cardiovascular system circulates blood 1
2 Overview of the Lymphatic System Slide 4 Major Functions of the Lymphatic System: fluid balance - excess interstitial fluid from tissue spaces (interstitial spaces) is returned to the blood by the lymphatic capillaries; once interstitial fluid enters a lymphatic capillary it is called lymph every day, about 30 liters of fluid leave your blood capillaries and enter the interstitial fluid of the body tissues approximately 27 of those liters are reabsorbed back into the blood capillaries the remaining 3 liters move into the lymphatic capillaries, so that they are removed from the tissue distribution - of hormones, nutrients, and waste products from the site of origin to general circulation the lymphatic system absorbs fats from the small intestines, and lymphatic vessels carry the fats to the bloodstream transport of lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood defense - microorganisms and antigens are destroyed by WBCs 2
3 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Flow SLIDE 6 LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES (fig. 20.1) - are found in most tissues of the body; they differ from blood capillaries in several ways: they originate as blind pockets; each of the lymphatic capillaries has one closed end; extracellular fluid enters the lymphatic capillary through a flap-like minivalve they are larger in diameter than blood capillaries they have thinner walls than blood capillaries there are gaps between the endothelial cells that comprise the wall of the lymphatic capillary making them more porous; fluids can enter the lymphatic capillary but cannot leave Lymphatic vessels - resemble veins in structure; from the capillaries, lymph moves into lymphatic vessels; they contain valves which keep the lymph moving in one direction through these low pressure vessels 3
4 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Flow = Slide 7 In general a tissue will contain many more lymphatic vessels than veins but they will be much smaller Lymph moves in response to: contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles (remember that veins return blood to the heart using a similar mechanism); like veins, lymph vessels have valves to keep the fluid moving in one direction contraction of smooth muscle in wall of the lymphatic vessel pressure changes in the thoracic cavity during respiration Major lymph-collecting vessels: (fig. 20.2) THORACIC DUCT - largest lymph vessel; drains into the left subclavian vein; drains the entire body except the upper right quarter CYSTERNA CHYLI - expanded abdominal portion of the thoracic duct; this is where fat-filled vessels from the digestive tract enter the lymphatic system RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT - drains lymph from the upper right quarter of the body; drains into the right subclavian vein Drainage of different regions of the body by lymph nodes 4
5 Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs Slide 9 Types of Lymphocytes: T CELLS (T lymphocytes) - attack foreign cells or body cells infected by viruses; T cells mature and divide in the thymus; T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity (meaning that the protection is directly from living cells) B CELLS (B lymphocytes) - responsible for antibody-mediated immunity (=humoral immunity); a percentage of circulating B lymphocytes mature into PLASMA CELLS; plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies which destroy antigens NK CELLS (natural killer cells) - attack foreign cells and cells infected with viruses and cancer cells LYMPHOID NODULES - lymphocytes densely packed into an area of areolar tissue occur in the connective tissue deep to the epithelia that line the respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts have a central zone called a germinal center which contains dividing lymphocytes the boundaries of the nodule are not distinct because they have no fibrous capsule surrounding them 5
6 Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs Slide 11 LYMPH NODES (fig. 20.4) small oval lymphoid organs distributed along the lymphatic vessels; each lymph node is covered by a capsule of dense fibrous connective tissue; connective tissue strands call trabeculae extend inward to divide the node into compartments they filter the lymph, removing bacteria and antigens lymphocytes congregate, function, and proliferate in the lymph nodes lymph nodes are found throughout the body: superficial aggregations of lymph nodes are found in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions afferent lymphatic vessel - lymph vessel that carries lymph to the lymph node; as lymph flows through the lymph node it is exposed to B and T cells and macrophages; at least 99% of the pathogens in the lymph are removed efferent lymphatic vessel - lymph vessel that carries lymph away from the lymph node 6
7 Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs-Slide 13 SPLEEN located in the superior, posterior, left abdominal cavity (fig. 20.5) contains the largest collection of lymphoid tissue in the body performs the same function for blood that lymph nodes perform for lymph; the spleen filters the blood and is involved with: removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis storage of iron from recycled RBCs initiation of immune responses by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in circulating blood the spleen also acts as a blood reservoir RED PULP vs. WHITE PULP: red pulp - area of the spleen that contains large numbers of RBCs; the structural framework of the red pulp consists of a network of reticular fibers; it is rich in macrophages; red pulp is mainly concerned with disposing of worn-out red blood cells and bloodborne pathogens white pulp - area of the spleen that resembles lymphoid nodules; it is composed mostly of lymphocytes suspended on reticular fibers, and is involved with the immune functions of the spleen 7
8 Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs Slide 15 TONSILS Large lymphoid nodules in the walls of the pharynx and oral cavity (fig. 20.5) pharyngeal tonsil - also called the adenoids is located in the posterior superior wall of the nasopharynx palatine tonsils - a pair of tonsils located at the posterior margin of the oral cavity along the border along its boundary with the oropharynx lingual tonsil - located under the attached base of the tongue PEYER S PATCHES Peyer's patches are clusters of lymphoid nodules deep to the epithelial lining of the small intestine (fig. 20.5) contain lymphocytes and macrophages which remove microorganisms, debris, and antigens from the digestive tract APPENDIX - large concentrations of lymphoid tissue are located in the wall of the appendix; thus, the appendix has some lymphatic function (fig. 20.5) Innate Host Defenses; innate defenses are present at birth and are genetically determined = Slide 16 Innate External Defense System - first line of defense surface barriers include the skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts characteristics of skin that help it to resist invasion: water-resistant and tough keratin outer layer intercellular junctions hold skin cells tightly together skin secrections are acidic and have chemicals that make the skin inhospitable to pathogens; e.g. lysozyme destroys cell walls of certain bacteria mucous membranes not only provide a barrier, but also produce a variety of protective chemicals (e.g. lysozyme) and acidic secretions the stomach secretes digestive enzymes and has a very low ph the digestive and respiratory pathways are lined with sticky mucous that traps pathogens 8
9 Innate Host Defenses = Slide 17 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific the internal defense system has 5 components: phagocytic cells (e.g. neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages) NK cells (natural killer cells) antimicrobial proteins (complement and interferon) inflammation fever Innate Host Defenses = Slide 18 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific phagocytes (fig. 21.2) neutrophils are the first cells to leave the blood and enter tissues at the sites of infection or trauma; these cells are short-lived monocytes follow the influx of neutrophils into the affected tissue; once in the tissue, they transform into macrophages; they phagocytize many more pathogens than neutrophils phagocytes use special membrane receptors to recognize and bind molecules that are found on pathogens, but not on normal body cells when a phagocyte recognizes a pathogen it: - ingests the pathogen - releases chemical alarm signals that mobilize other cells of innate and adaptive immunity OPSONIZATION - some bacteria have capsules that make it difficult for phagocytes to grab them; the immune system makes molecules that coat the bacteria and enhance phagocytosis; this is called opsonization; both complement and antibodies can act as opsonins 9
10 Innate Host Defenses Slide = 19 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific NK cells (natural killer cells) type of lymphocyte involved in innate immunity attack body cells that have been invaded by pathogens (e.g. viruses) or cancer; they will also attack the cells of transplanted tissues NK cells are larger than B and T cells, and unlike B and T cells, do not have antigen receptors both NK cells and T cells are involved in IMMUNE SURVEILLANCE (they continually scan our cells for abnormalities) Innate Host Defenses = Slide 20 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific antimicrobial proteins interferons (fig. 21.5)- interfere with viral replication and activate immune cells; cells that have been attacked by a virus release interferon to help protect neighboring cells that have not yet been affected complement (complement system) (fig. 21.6) - it complements or enhances other components of both innate and adaptive defenses; it can mark cells for phagocytosis, promote inflammation, and kill some bacteria 10
11 Innate Host Defenses = Slide 21 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific inflammation when the body is injured (e.g. a cut, abrasion, or bruise) a sequence of events called inflammation is initiated tonsillitis, tendonitis, and laryngitis are examples of short-lived, or acute, inflammation; arthritis is an example of long-term, or chronic, inflammation there are 4 cardinal signs of inflammation: pain, swelling, redness, and heat the purpose of inflammation is to bring white blood cells and plasma proteins into an injured area; inflammatory mediators (e.g. histamine from basophils and mast cells) cause vasodilation (increasing blood flow to the area) and an increase in vascular permeability (allowing phagocytes and plasma proteins to enter the tissue) plasma proteins and more fluid than usual leak into the injured area causing EDEMA (increased interstitial fluid); edema causes swelling, which can contribute to the sensation of pain Innate Host Defenses = Slide 22 Innate Internal Defense System - second line of defense; attempts to limit the spread of pathogens; this system is fast-acting and nonspecific fever generalized increase in body temperature PYROGENS - chemicals secreted by leukocytes and macrophages that have been exposed to foreign substances in the body; they cause the body s thermostat (located in the hypothalamus) to set its temperature higher higher body temperatures enhance phagocytosis and cause the liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc (making these essential elements less available to bacteria); pathogens also do not grow very well at higher temperatures 11
12 Adaptive Defenses - the body s third line of defense = Slide 23 Adaptive Defenses are Specific, Systemic, and have Memory; they include Humoral Immunity (antibody-mediated) and Cellular Immunity (cell-meditated) B and T Lymphocytes are key players in adaptive immunity Antigens (fig. 21.7) have multiple antigenic determinants (based on shapes) self-antigens are the shapes that lymphocytes expect to find in the body (thus lymphocytes do not normally attack them) antigen receptors are specific and diverse Adaptive Defenses = Slide 24 Education of Lymphocytes immunocompetence - the lymphocyte is able to recognize its one specific antigen by binding to it self-tolerance - the lymphocyte is unresponsive to self-antigens, so that it does not attack the body s own cells T cells become immunocompetent and self-tolerant in the thymus, whereas for B cells this occurs in the bone marrow Autoimmune Diseases - lymphocytes attack the body s own cells; e.g. Type 1 Diabetes mellitus, Grave s disease, and Multiple sclerosis Memory Cells - are created in large numbers during a primary immune response (exposed to antigen for first time); memory cells create a larger number of effector cells during a secondary immune response (exposed to antigen again); thus, the response to the second attack will be much greater 12
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