KEY ELEMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTION (1)
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1 KEY ELEMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTION (1) Mobilization of political will and commitment Good surveillance Learn and adapt from past experiences Unified national planning Rapid implementation
2 KEY ELEMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTION (2) Focused intervention, especially to marginalized groups Access to intervention tools; e.g. condoms, testing Community involvement Reduce stigmatization and discrimination Promote testing
3 MODES OF TRANSMISSION Blood Sexual activities Mother to child
4 NEED TO RETURN TO PUBLIC HEALTH PRINCIPLES Discard concept of exceptionalism Primary responsibility to protect the uninfected Promote (risk-free) testing Prevention of transmission
5 USING ANXIETY AS A PUBLIC HEALTH TOOL Level of Anxiety Consequences Too little Sufficient Too much No action Appropriate action Fatalism and no action
6 DETERMINANTS OF TRANSMISSION FROM AN INFECTED PERSON Duration of infection/stage of disease Risk of transmission per sexual act Viral RNA level Presence/absence of concurrent STD and other infections Condom use Circumcision Partner exchange rate Mixing pattern Patterns of sexual behavior (anal, vaginal, etc.)
7 TARGET GROUPS FOR INTERVENTION STRATEGIES Men who have sex with men Intravenous drug users Promiscuous heterosexuals Health care workers Biomedical laboratory workers Blood/plasma donors Pregnant women in high-risk populations Youth years
8 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION Rapid Testing 1. Immediate results 2. Requires confirmation
9 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - BLOOD 1. Reduced use of whole blood 2. Screening of blood donors 3. Screening of blood donations 4. Processing of blood products 5. Institutionalization of routine safety procedures for health workers and biomedical laboratory technicians
10 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION INJECTING DRUG USERS 1. Prevent drug use 2. Reduce needle sharing 3. Use of bleach or boiling 4. Needle exchange programs 5. Methadone clinics 6. Health education/behavioral intervention for intravenous drug users 7. Improve access to and acceptability of testing
11 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - SEXUAL ACTIVITIES (MALE-FEMALE, MALE-MALE) (1) Health education/behavioral intervention Increase knowledge of HIV/AIDS at an early age Eliminate/reduce high-risk practices Promote use of condoms with every intercourse Promote monogamy/celibacy Improve sex education in schools
12 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - SEXUAL ACTIVITIES (MALE-FEMALE, MALE-MALE) (2) Reduce opportunities for promiscuity (e.g., close bath houses, reduce number of partners, avoid anonymous partners) Regular screening and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases Use of syndromic approach to treat STDs
13 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - SEXUAL ACTIVITIES (MALE-FEMALE, MALE-MALE) (3) Premarital testing Routine testing of sex workers for STDs and HIV, with treatment for those infected Regulation of commercial sex Improve access to and acceptability of testing Voluntary partner notification
14 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION HIGH-RISK HIGH- FERTILITY WOMEN 1. Selection of marital partners 2. Testing before marriage and pregnancy 3. Monogamy 4. Education of spouses 5. Screening and effective treatment of STDs 6. Improve access to and acceptability of HIVtesting 7. Condom use 8. Empowerment
15 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - MOTHER TO INFANT (1) Screening of women in high-risk groups Pre-pregnancy testing Routine screening of pregnant women Counseling Antiretroviral treatment - prenatal PCR/isolation/IgA screening of infants
16 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION - MOTHER TO INFANT (2) Postnatal treatment Education Breast-feeding only if no access to clean formula; otherwise, exclusive breast-feeding Prophylaxis during breast-feeding Screening and effective treatment of STDs
17 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION AIDS (1) Developed countries Initiate HAART CD4 + cell <250, regardless of symptoms Symptoms of HIV infection present regardless of CD4 + cell level CD4 + cell >250, viral load >30,000 Diagnosis of AIDS Monitoring of HAART response and development of resistance
18 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT HIV INFECTION AIDS (2) Developing countries Political commitment Testing and counseling Provision of inexpensive drugs Development of treatment infrastructure Training of treatment personnel Education on need for adherence to drug regimen Development of inexpensive, low-tech surrogate tests for monitoring disease course
19 TARGET POPULATIONS Vulnerable groups Poor Minorities Men who have sex with men Adolescents In utero/breast-feeding infants (mothers) Schoolchildren Women
20 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES Educational approaches Behavioral (theory-based) approaches Harm reduction Community intervention
21 EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES School-based Media: newspapers, posters, radio/tv Internet Health professionals Train the trainers Researchers Administrators Health care providers
22 BEHAVIORAL (THEORY-BASED): EMPOWER APPROACHES Stages of behavior change Knowledge Persuasion (of ability to change) Decision Implementation Reinforcement
23 ROLE MODELS Formal leaders Informal leaders Recruitment Training
24 HARM REDUCTION Condoms Needle exchange Methadone and other drug alternatives
25 COMMUNITY INTERVENTION Have community accept responsibility and initiate appropriate intervention activities Recruit community leaders, teachers, health workers, peer leaders, media Develop appropriate intervention strategies collaboratively with community
26 EDUCATION IS ESSENTIAL BUT INSUFFICIENT
27 CDC, New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic HIV testing as a part of routine medical care New models for testing outside medical setting (e.g., community setting) Work with HIV-positive individuals to prevent secondary spread Promote routine testing of pregnant women and infants of untested mothers
28 EVALUATION OF INTERVENTION STRATEGIES Are the appropriate risk groups and areas targeted? Is the intervention strategy culturally/ economically appropriate for the specific risk group/area? How is effectiveness of intervention strategies measured? Is the sentinel surveillance system a part of the evaluation scheme? Has there been an impact? Is the strategy cost-effective?
29
30 OBJECTIVES OF VACCINATION Prevent infection Prevent disease Prevent transmission
31 TARGET GROUPS FOR VACCINATION Men who have sex with men Injection drug users Promiscuous heterosexuals Sex workers Health workers Biomedical laboratory workers Spouses of risk group members
32 REQUIREMENTS FOR A VACCINE Must be safe Must elicit a protective immune response Must stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity Must protect against different clades of HIV Must provide long-lasting immunity Must be practical to produce, transport and administer Should stimulate mucosal immunity in genital tract, rectum and oral cavity
33 PRIMARY ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT (1) No long-lasting natural immunity yet demonstrated in humans Disease progresses despite presence of neutralizing antibody Variability of viral genome Can a group antigen be found to induce immunity? Clades? Antigenic drift Need to induce humoral and especially cytotoxic cellular immunity Potential of some vaccine candidates to induce enhancing antibodies
34 PRIMARY ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT (2) Applicability of animal studies to HIV in humans Ethics and sources of volunteers for safety and efficacy trials Efficacy Against infection Against disease Against transmissibility Acceptable level Who will be vaccinated? Selection of optimal vaccine: safety vs. efficacy
35 TYPES OF VACCINES Non-live Whole virus, killed Subunit with adjuvant Fractionation and use of specific particles Synthetic Anti-idiotypic Live Whole virus, attenuated Subunit, recombinant Viral substrate Non-viral substrate (e.g., yeast) DNA vaccines (inject gene coding for antigen) Artificial resistance
36 STAGES IN VACCINE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Basic research Animal studies Safety Immunogenicity (humoral and cell-mediated) Efficacy Clinical trials Phase I safety and immunogenicity in humans small numbers of subjects Who should be the guinea pigs? Phase II safety and immune response in humans small trials Phase III larger population-based trials for efficacy
37 SOCIOPOLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS Cost of development federal government and/or private industry? Responsibility for liability federal government, industry, or insurance companies? Priorities for funding and distribution of vaccine
38 Intl AIDS Vaccine Res (1):7, Dec 04- Mar 05.
39
40 SUGGESTED FUTURE DIRECTIONS (1) iimplement public health principles and eliminate concept of exceptionalism imobilize political will and intervention priority of HIV/AIDS (consensus strategies, not dictates) 8 International level 8 National level 8 Local level # Increase community awareness and acceptance of health threat # Promote community responsibility for intervention # Implement community intervention strategies ilower cost and improve quality of surveillance, especially of low-risk groups
41 SUGGESTED FUTURE DIRECTIONS (2) i Promote health education for: 4 Health professionals 4 Media 4 Public, especially young, sexually active men and women 4 School children before majority leave school i Develop, implement, and evaluate culturally sensitive, economically feasible behavioral intervention strategies i Improve treatment potential, especially in developing countries 4 Promote concept of wealthy nation responsibility towards poorer nations; e.g., drug patent relief 4 Implement mechanisms for distribution of low-cost treatments 4 Develop treatment infrastructure 4 Develop surrogate markers for disease progression and HAART response
42 SUGGESTED FUTURE DIRECTIONS (3) iimplement risk-free testing (e.g., rapid saliva testing with resources for confirmation of positives) ipromote widespread testing ireduce stigmatization associated with testing, being HIV-infected, and belonging to a risk group 4 Increases willingness to learn HIV status 4 Increases testing acceptability 4 Facilitates earlier identification # Improves treatment effectiveness # Reduces period of unknowing transmissibility # Facilitates premarital testing
43 SUGGESTED FUTURE DIRECTIONS (4) iimprove control of sexually transmitted diseases iimplement early health and sex education before majority of young people leave school ipromote education of women ipromote harm reduction 4Needle exchange, etc. 4Condom promotion ireduce cost of screening blood ireduce acceptance of multiple sexual partners
44 SUGGESTED FUTURE DIRECTIONS (5) Change gender realities (role of men and women) Develop and promote an effective microbicide Develop behavioral interventions that will be sustained Develop strategies to evaluate behavioral interventions Continue intense efforts to develop an effective vaccine
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