Association between haloacetic acid degradation and heterotrophic bacteria in water distribution systems

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1 wter reserh 43 (29) Aville t journl homepge: Assoition etween hloeti id degrdtion nd heterotrophi teri in wter distriution systems Hsin-hsin Tung, *, Yuefeng F. Xie,1 Grdute Institute of Environmentl Engineering, Ntionl Tiwn University, 71 Chou-Shn Rod, Tipei 1673, Tiwn Penn Stte Hrrisurg, TL177 Siene nd Tehnology, 777 West Hrrisurg Pike, Middletown, PA 1757, USA rtile info Artile history: Reeived 1 Ferury 28 Reeived in revised form 19 Otoer 28 Aepted 26 Novemer 28 Pulished online 6 Deemer 28 Keywords: Biodegrdtion Disinfetion yprodut Distriution system Hloeti id Heterotrophi teri Chlorine residul strt The ourrenes of trihlomethnes (THMs), hloeti ids (HAAs) nd heterotrophi teri were monitored in five smll wter systems over nine-month period to investigte the ssoition etween HAA degrdtion nd heterotrophi teri popultions. The smpling sites were hosen to over the entire distriution network for eh system. An inverse ssoition etween heterotrophi teri nd HAA onentrtions ws found t some lotions where hlorine residuls were round or less thn.3 mg L 1. At other smple lotions, where hlorine residuls were higher (over.7 mg L 1 ), no HAA redution ws oserved. A high heterotrophi teri ount ompnied with low hlorine residul ould e used s n inditor for HAA degrdtion in distriution systems. ª 28 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introdution Under the United Sttes Environmentl Protetion Ageny (USEPA) Stge 2 Disinfetnts nd Disinfetion Byproduts Rule (D/DBPR)(USEPA, 26), the lotionl running nnul verges (LRAAs) re speified for mximum ontminnt level ompline. The totl onentrtion of five hloeti ids (HAA5: monohloroeti id, ClAA; dihloroeti id, Cl 2 AA; trihloroeti id, Cl 3 AA; monoromoeti id, BrAA; diromoeti id, Br 2 AA) nd four trihlomethnes (: hloroform, romohloromethne, diromohloromethne, romodihloromethne, romoform) re regulted s 6 nd 8 mgl 1, respetively. For disinfetion yprodut (DBP) monitoring, pek DBP onentrtion lotions should e seleted for eh system. Wter systems re required to identify pek DBP onentrtion lotions throughout the distriution system vi n Initil Distriution System Evlution (IDSE) under this USEPA Stge 2 D/DBPR. Severl ftors ffet DBP onentrtions in distriution system. These ftors inlude ph, wter temperture, totl orgni ron (TOC) onentrtions, hlorine residuls, romide onentrtion, nd miroil tivity (Krsner et l., 1989; Stevens et l., 1989; Summers et l., 1996). The onentrtion of DBPs within the distriution my lso vry sesonlly nd sptilly. Sesonl vritions re due to hnges in soure wter qulity, suh s nturl orgni mtter (NOM) onentrtion, temperture, hlorine demnd nd ph. Sptil vritions re due to long retion time of hlorine nd NOM, s well s degrdtion/formtion of DBPs nd intermedite yproduts in the distriution system. * Corresponding uthor. Tel.: þ ; fx: þ E-mil ddresses: htung@ntu.edu.tw (H.-h. Tung), yxx4@psu.edu (Y.F. Xie). 1 Tel.: þ ; fx: þ /$ see front mtter ª 28 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:1.116/j.wtres

2 972 wter reserh 43 (29) In the presene of hlorine residul in wter, DBP formtion ontinues during distriution nd storge. In the distriution system hlorine, espeilly free hlorine, in the treted wter ould ret with NOM nd produe more DBPs. Therefore, DBP onentrtions my e higher in the distriution system thn in the plnt effluent. This is generlly true for trihlomethnes (THMs). Higher THM onentrtions re often found in the distriution systems thn in the plnt effluents, espeilly t mximum residene time lotions. THM onentrtions my hve positive ssoition with residene time or distne in the distriution system nd/or the free hlorine onsumption (Clrk nd Sivgnesn, 1998; Koh et l., 1991; Rekhow nd Singer, 199). However, the HAA onentrtions do not follow this pttern. Beuse HAAs re esily iodegrdle ompounds, HAA onentrtions my e lower t the lotions where iotivity is high. These lotions re often ssoited with longer residene time (Mllirou et l., 25; Willims et l., 1998) nd low hlorine residul. Other studies hve found possile orreltion etween iotivity nd HAA degrdtion in distriution systems (Brieu et l., 25; Lndmeyer et l., 2; Meyer et l., 1993; Speight nd Singer, 25). With iotivity, HAAs ould e degrded within the distriution system or in storge tnks where longer residene time is oserved (Chen nd Weisel, 1998; Lndmeyer et l., 2; Singer et l., 1993; Thoms et l., 2). Therefore, the onentrtion of HAAs in the distriution ould e inresed y ontinuous HAA formtion in the presene of residul hlorine or deomposition from other hlorinted DBPs nd e redued y iodegrdtion or hydrolysis (Zhng nd Miner, 22). Most of the HAA degrdtion in distriution studies foused on lrge systems where longer residene time would e expeted. Smll systems, where wter residene time might e shorter thn lrge systems, whether the HAA degrdtion ours in the distriution were unler. Although miroil degrdtion my e the predominnt mehnism for HAA redution in the distriution system, there is no reported ssoition etween the derese of HAAs nd miroil quntities or tivities. The ojetive for this study ws to investigte the ssoition etween DBPs, espeilly HAAs, nd the heterotrophi teri quntities in the distriution systems. The ssoition ould e used to develop wter qulity prmeter surrogte for HAA degrdtion in distriution systems nd to etter ontrol HAAs in drinking wter. 2. Methods 2.1. Smpling sites Five smll systems using surfe wter s the soure wter nd prtiing onventionl tretment proesses were seleted for this study. Free hlorine ws used in ll tretment plnts s the disinfetnt. Six smplings were performed in nine-month period for eh system. Three of the six smpling were performed in the old seson nd the other three were in wrm seson. The old seson represents wter temperture etween 6 nd 1 C nd the wrm seson represents wter temperture etween 1 nd 2 C t the time of smpling. Four to six points long the distriution mins, inluding the inlet nd the mximum residene time lotion, were seleted for eh system. The smpling points for this study were hosen to otin the diverse geogrphi nd hydruli sites. Tle 1 lists the generl informtion of the five smll systems studied nd the distne of the smpling sites from the distriution inlet. A numeri system identifition (ID) long with Romn numerl ws given to eh smple lotion. For the reserh purpose nd to void interferene from the different residentil piping systems, smples for system LK were olleted from fire hydrnts long the min distriution line. All other smples were olleted t residentil or industril uildings Smple nlysis Generl wter qulity prmeters, suh s temperture, ph, nd hlorine residuls, were mesured t the time of Tle 1 Smpling site identifition, distne from the distriution inlet (m), nd generl wter tretment plnt opertion prmeters for eh system. System GP NO JT LY LK Site ID I II III IV V VI Plnt flow rte (m 3 dy 1 ) Popultion Sesonl Disinfetnt NClO Cl 2(g) Cl 2(g) Cl 2(g) Cl 2(g) Averge TOC (mg L 1 ) Averge post free hlorine residul (mg L 1 ) Averge post totl hlorine residul (mg L 1 ) The site ID I is the distriution inlet for eh system nd the highest ID numer is the mximum residene time lotion. Vlues were otined from the finished wter during the smpling period.

3 wter reserh 43 (29) smpling. The hlorine residul mesurements were onduted with the N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenedimine (DPD) olorimetri method using n Hh DR89 hndheld meter (Hh Compny, Lovelnd, Colordo, USA). The totl orgni ron (TOC) onentrtions were nlyzed using the persulfte oxidtion method with TOC nlyzer (model 11, OI Anlytil, College Sttion, TX, USA). Modified EPA Methods nd were used to mesure totl trihlomethnes (, inludes: hloroform, diromohloromethne, romodihloromethne, nd romoform) nd six HAA (, HAA5 plus romohloroeti id, BrClAA) onentrtions. Heterotrophi plte ount () ws nlyzed y the stndrd memrne filtrtion method with medi (Pll Corportion, Est Hills, NY, USA) (AWWA, 1998; USEPA, 1995, 23). 3. Results Beuse hlorine residuls nd orgni onentrtions vry depending on tretment filities nd distriution systems, individul nlysis within eh system ws onduted. For esy omprison of temperture vritions, ll dt points were seprted into two groups: old nd wrm sesons System GP The system GP is stte prk with 339 sesonl mpsites (for mping vehile or tents) nd 13 yer-round ottges/ins. Lower wter usge nd longer wter retention time re ommon during the winter months. High nd onentrtions (>1 mgl 1 ) were found in this system whih is onsistent with the high hlorine demnd of the soure wter (pproximtely 5 mg L 1 )(Fig. 1). The onentrtions in this system inresed long the distriution pipelines (lotions GP-I to GP-V, Fig. 1), nd slightly deresed ner the end of the distriution systems (lotion GP-VI, Fig. 1). DBP formtion would ontinue if oth preursors nd residul hlorine were present. Mny studies hve oserved the DBP formtion in distriution systems, nd inresed THM onentrtions long the distriution system were ommonly reported (Brieu et l., 25; Chen nd Weisel, 1998; Rodriguez nd Serodes, 25). onentrtions inresed slightly from GP-I to GP-II lotions nd deresed t lotions GP-III to GP-VI where high numers were deteted (Fig. 1, ). Lower hlorine residuls (from to.25 mg L 1 ) were lso oserved t lotions GP-III to GP-VI. Under these low hlorine onditions, HAA degrding miroorgnisms my e highly tive nd result in sustntil HAA redution. Fig. 1 shows the verge onentrtion t different seson. The onentrtions were higher in the wrm seson nd lower in the old seson. For oth sesons, onentrtions were redued t lotions with high numers (GP-III to GP-VI for the wrm seson nd GP-IV to GP- VI for the old seson). No smples were olleted from lotions GP-II nd GP-III during the old seson euse those lotions were losed for the winter. At lotion GP-IV, 28% redution in HAA onentrtion ws oserved (in omprison to HAAs in finished wter) for oth wrm nd old sesons. A muh lower vlue ws otined in the old or [ug L -1 ] Residul hlorine [mg L -1 ] [mg L -1 ] I II III VI V VI wrm Fig. 1 System GP. The Romn numerls leled t the top onentrtions. The rs were onstruted y 9th perentile, medin, nd 1th perentile of the six smplings tken from the experimentl period. () Averge seson, inditing the impt of temperture on miroil popultion. HAA redutions t 86% nd 81% were oserved t lotion GP-VI (the mximum residene time lotion) in the wrm nd old sesons, respetively. At lotion GP-V where vlues were similr for oth sesons, different HAA redutions were oserved. The redution ws 41% for the wrm seson nd ws only 2% for the old seson. This indites tht the redution of HAAs ws not proportionl to the mount of heterotrophi teri suspended in the wter.

4 974 wter reserh 43 (29) System NO The verge hlorine residul deresed slightly with distne from the distriution inlet, exept t lotion NO-II (Fig. 2) where sustntil drop of hlorine residul ws oserved. Lotion NO-II is n old puli uilding nd onsistently hs low hlorine residuls for oth free nd totl hlorine. onentrtions were higher t this point nd longer wter retention time ws suspeted. NO-II lso hd the highest numers ut HAA redution ws not oserved. There re two potentil resons. First, the s were under 4 ounts ml 1 ; thus, the iotivity inside the pipe ws insignifint in omprison to HAA formtion. Seond, the overll distriution system hlorine residuls were ove.7 mg L 1 for ll lotions. Although teri ould e vile under these high hlorine onditions, they might not e metolilly tive regrding HAA iodegrdtion. Therefore, the HAA degrdtion might e inhiited y the high hlorine residuls in this distriution system. nd onentrtions were higher when wter tempertures were elevted t the sme lotions (Fig. 2). Wrm wter results in higher HAA formtion nd higher heterotrophi teri growth. However, s shown in Fig. 2,, little or no HAA iodegrdtion ws oserved t system NO even in the wrm seson whih might e due to high hlorine residuls System JT System JT is smll system with reltively liner distriution system nd only four smpling lotions were seleted long the min distriution line. Fig. 3 shows tht oth the nd onentrtions remined similr throughout the distriution system. Fig. 3 shows tht oth free nd totl hlorine deresed only slightly t the end of distriution system. The onentrtions were slightly higher t the end of the system whih might e the result of THM formtion. The onentrtions remin similr throughout the system (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 shows tht onentrtions were higher in the wrm wether. There ws no sustntil HAA degrdtion oserved in the distriution system. This might e due to high hlorine residuls. This system mintins oth free nd totl hlorine residuls over.7 mg L 1 throughout the distriution whih might limit the iotivity System LY Fig. 4, shows the verge hlorine residuls,, nd onentrtions. Similr to some of the other systems desried previously, oth the free nd totl hlorine residuls redued s the distne from the distriution inlet inresed. The derese of hlorine residuls from lotion LY-II to LY-V ws ompnied y n inrese in nd onentrtions. Fig. 4 shows tht in the wrm seson, onentrtions were higher thn those in the old seson. The numers were higher in lotions LY-III to LY-V, ut still in low rnge (<4 ounts ml 1 ) in omprison to system GP. Due to the low heterotrophi teri onentrtions nd/or higher hlorine residuls (>.7 mg L 1 ) whih might indite lower iotivities inside the pipe, no sustntil HAA iodegrdtion ws oserved in this system. or [ug L -1 ] Residul hlorine [mg L -1 ] [mg L -1 ] System LK I II IIIVI V VI wrm Fig. 2 System NO. The Romn numerls leled t the top onentrtions. The rs were onstruted y 9th perentile, medin, nd 1th perentile of the six smplings tken from the experimentl period. () Averge For the reserh purpose nd to void the interferene of different pluming system t eh smpling lotion, fire hydrnts from one wter min (two diretions outwrd from the tretment plnt) were used s the smpling lotions

5 wter reserh 43 (29) I II III VI 6 I II III VI V or [ug L -1 ] Residul hlorine [mg L -1 ] [mg L -1 ] wrm ml-1 or [ug L -1 ] Residul hlorine [mg L -1 ] [mg L -1 ] wrm Fig. 3 System JT. The Romn numerls leled t the top onentrtions. The rs were onstruted y 9th perentile, medin, nd 1th perentile of the six smplings tken from the experimentl period. () Averge Fig. 4 System LY. The Romn numerls leled t the top onentrtions. The rs were onstruted y 9th perentile, medin, nd 1th perentile of the six smplings tken from the experimentl period. () Averge Fig. 5, shows the verge hlorine residuls,, nd onentrtions for this system. Exept for lotion LK-II, the hlorine residuls were lower thn the distriution inlet ut were ll ove.7 mg L 1. At lotion LK-II, whih the hlorine residuls dropped sustntilly to less thn.1 mg L 1, ws only 152 m wy from the inlet. The highest onentrtion ws oserved nd sustntil redutions in HAA onentrtions were lso oserved t this lotion. The low hlorine residul nd high t this lotion my e due to exess iofilm inside the pipe feeding this fire hydrnt sine exess iofilm ould result in greter hlorine demnd. The other possiility ws tht the lotion LK-II might e ded-end or hydrulilly isolted from the distriution whih resulted in longer wter residene time. The low

6 976 wter reserh 43 (29) or [ug L -1 ] Residul hlorine [mg L -1 ] [mg L -1 ] I II III VI V VI wrm Fig. 5 System LK. The Romn numerls leled t the top onentrtions. The rs were onstruted y 9th perentile, medin, nd 1th perentile of the six smplings tken from the experimentl period. () Averge hlorine residuls (<.1 mg L 1 ) nd high (>1, ml 1 ) results were only found in four out of six totl smples for the lotion LK-II. For these four smplings (inluded oth wrm nd old smples), HAA onentrtions were lose to zero. However, for the other two smplings, the hlorine residuls were higher (round.5 mg L 1 ) nd the were muh lower (<2 ml 1 ). For these two smplings, the HAA onentrtions were higher (round 4 mgl 1 ) nd were similr to other lotions. This indited tht the low hlorine residul onentrtions might possily ssoite with extremely high in the wter nd resulted in the low HAA onentrtions. Exlude lotion LK-II, onentrtions remined similr throughout the distriution system (Fig. 1). vlues inresed slightly with the inrese of the distne from the distriution inlet (from lotion LK-III to LK-VI). The inrese of in the distriution systems did not result in HAA redution. This might e due to the higher verge hlorine residuls. At lotions LK-I nd LK-III to LK-VI, hlorine residuls were ll ove.7 mg L 1. HAA onentrtions t system LK were higher in the wrm seson nd lower in the old seson (Fig. 5). However, the vlues were higher in the old seson nd lower in the wrm seson. The numer of heterotrophi teri ould e ffeted y mny ftors, suh s temperture, tretment proess, flushing intervls, orgni onentrtions nd hlorine residuls. The tul use of higher in old seson ould not e determined y the dt otined. 4. Disussion In this study, the onentrtions were losely ssoited with hlorine residuls. Higher onentrtions were deteted t low hlorine residul lotions in ll the distriution systems. This is in greement with other findings (Clrk nd Sivgnesn, 1998; Koh et l., 1991; Rekhow nd Singer, 199). At the smple lotions where free hlorine residuls were lower thn those t the distriution inlet, the onentrtions were higher euse of the ontinuous THM formtion. For the sme reson, deresing hlorine residuls should inrese HAA onentrtions in the sene of HAA degrdtion. There re mny ftors whih ffet the HAA onentrtion in distriution systems. HAA formtion nd HAA iodegrdtion re the two mjor proesses whih ould hnge the HAA onentrtions. Sine most USEPA regulted HAAs re esily iodegrdle ompounds, the derese of HAA onentrtion is expeted t distriution system lotions high in iotivity. Higher hlogen sustitution HAA speies suh s Cl 3 AA were not esy to e iodegrded (Brieu et l., 2; Singer et l., 1999). In this study, the mjor speies of HAAs for ll the smples nlyzed were di- nd trihloroeti ids (pproximtely 1:1 wt/wt). At the lotions where hlorine residuls were low, oth di- nd trihloroeti ids were degrded to lower onentrtions with similr rtio. This ws inonsistent with other study in whih Cl 3 AA ws not degrded in old seson (Brieu et l., 25). This might e due to different experimentl ondition. The dt in this study were olleted from the field where iofilm in the distriution system might lredy een dpted to the lower wter temperture nd e le to degrde Cl 3 AA in oth old nd wrm sesons. The systems GP nd LK, HAA onentrtions were lower t lotions where hlorine residuls were round or less thn.3 mg L 1 nd s were high. This threshold hlorine residul vlue s.3 mg L 1 ws determined y field dt nd my not pply to ll systems. In systems with high hlorine residuls (>.7 mg L 1 ), suh s systems NO, JT, nd LY in this study, HAA degrdtion ws not oserved even in the presene of high heterotrophi teri popultions. Although the

7 wter reserh 43 (29) teri ould survive under high hlorine onditions, the iofilm tivity might e limited. A further explortion of the miroil degrdtion kinetis under high hlorine onditions is needed to verify the inhiition mehnisms. Although onentrtion in the wter lone might not represent the tul miroil density inside the pipe iofilm, the use of in this study ws sed on n ssumption tht higher in the effluent wter ws the result of higher iofilm tivity inside the pipe. A pired t-test with 95% onfidene intervl ws lulted using the retor dt from Brieu et l. (25). The result showed tht the differene etween suspended onentrtions in the retor effluent wter nd the onentrtion on the retor iofilm ws not sttistilly signifint ( p ¼.126). Another ssumption tht the iofilm t the systems studied ws mture nd produed onstnt growing nd shedding rtes. The iofilm ould osionlly shed nd produe pek miroil onentrtion in the effluent (Zheus et l., 2). By smpling the sme lotion ontinuously over long period of time, the iofilm shedding effets ould e redued. As reported in other studies (Nikolou et l., 24; Shimzu et l., 25), nd onentrtions were higher in the wrm sesons thn in the old sesons for ll five systems studied. Higher NOM onentrtions, wter temperture, hlorine dosges or retion rtes for DBP formtion might e the min uses for higher DBPs in wrm sesons. Biodegrdtion rtes should lso e higher in the wrm sesons thn in the old sesons. However, this inresed iodegrdtion during wrm wether ws not oserved in this study. 5. Conlusions To omply with the Stge 2 D/DBP rule, wter systems re required to identify distriution system lotions with pek DBP onentrtions. A thorough investigtion of the distriution system ould provide etter view of the sptil vrition of DBPs. The results from this study suggested tht HAA degrdtion would our when hlorine residuls re lower thn.3 mg L 1 nd heterotrophi teri re high (>1, ml 1 ). This might e pplile to other iodegrdle DBPs s well. These findings ould help wter professionls to selet proper lotions est representing the pek DBP onentrtions in their distriution systems. Aknowledgements This study ws supported y The United Sttes Environmentl Protetion Ageny s Smll Puli Wter Systems Tehnology Assistne Center t Penn Stte Hrrisurg. The ssistne from Rik Ristu II nd personnel of wter systems studied were gretly ppreited. referenes AWWA, Stndrd Methods for the Exmintion of Wter nd Wstewter. Amerin Wter Works Assoition. Brieu, H., Krsner, S.W., Chinn, R., Singer, P.C., 2. Impt of Biomss on the Stility of Hloeti Aids nd Trihlomethnes in Simulted Distriution System. Amerin Wter Works Assoition, Slt Lke City, UT, USA. Brieu, H., Krsner, S.W., Chinn, R., Singer, P.C., 25. Impt of iomss on the stility of HAAs nd THMs in simulted distriution system. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 97 (2), Chen, W.J., Weisel, C.P., Hlogented DBP onentrtions in distriution system. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 9 (4), Clrk, R.M., Sivgnesn, M., Prediting hlorine residuls nd formtion of TTHMs in drinking wter. Journl of Environmentl Engineering-ASCE 124 (12), Koh, B., Krsner, S.W., Slimenti, M.J., Shimpff, W.K., Prediting the formtion of DBPS y the simulted distriution-system. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 83 (1), Krsner, S.W., MGuire, M.J., Jngelo, J.G., Ptni, N.L., Regn, K.M., The ourrene of disinfetion yproduts in US drinking wter. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 81 (8), Lndmeyer, J.E., Brdley, P.M., Thoms, J.M., 2. Biodegrdtion of disinfetion yproduts s potentil removl proess during quifer storge reovery. Journl of the Amerin Wter Resoures Assoition 36 (4), Mllirou, E., Collins, C., Grhm, N., Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J., 25. Hloeti ids in drinking wter in the United Kingdom. Wter Reserh 39 (12), Meyer, I., Frnis, T., Lykins, B., Dutng, M., Hrtemnn, P., Influene of iofilm on disinfetion yproduts in distriution network. Wter Supply 11 (3 4), IWSA Speilized Conferene on Qulity Aspets of Wter Supply, Nikolou, A.D., Golfinopoulos, S.K., Lekks, T.D., Kostopoulou, M.N., 24. DBP levels in hlorinted drinking wter: effet of humi sustnes. Environmentl Monitoring nd Assessment 93 (1 3), Rekhow, D.A., Singer, P.C., 199. Chlorintion y-produts in drinking wters: from formtion potentils to finished wter onentrtions. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 82 (4), Rodriguez, M.J., Serodes, J., 25. Lortory-sle hlorintion to estimte the levels of hlogented DBPs in full-sle distriution systems. Environmentl Monitoring And Assessment 11 (1 3), Shimzu, H., Kouhi, M., Sugit, Y., Yonekur, Y., Kumno, H., Hshiwt, K., Hirot, T., Ozki, N., Fukushim, T., 25. Developing model for disinfetion y-produts sed on multiple regression nlysis in wter distriution system. Journl of Wter Supply Reserh nd Tehnology-Aqu 54 (4), Singer, P.C., Pyne, D.R., Avs, M., Miller, C.T., Mojonnier, C., Exmining the impt of quifer storge nd reovery on DBPs. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 85 (11), Singer, P.C., Aror, H., Dundore, E., Brophy, K., Weinerg, H.S., Control of Hloeti Aid Conentrtions y Biofiltrtion: Cse Study. In: AWWA (Ed.). Amerin Wter Works Assoition, Tmp, FL, USA. Speight, V.L., Singer, P.C., 25. Assoition etween residul hlorine loss nd HAA redution in distriution systems. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 97 (2), Stevens, A.A., Moore, L.A., Miltner, R.J., Formtion nd ontrol of non-trihlomethne disinfetion y-produts. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 81 (8), 54 6.

8 978 wter reserh 43 (29) Summers, R.S., Hooper, S.M., Shukiry, H.M., Solrik, G., Owen, D., Assessing the DBP yield: uniform formtion onditions. Journl of the Amerin Wter Works Assoition 88 (6), Thoms, J.M., MKy, W., Cole, E., Lndmeyer, J.E., Brdley, P.M., 2. Fte of hloeti ids nd trihlomethnes in n quifer storge nd reovery progrm, Ls Vegs, Nevd. Ground Wter 38 (4), USEPA, Method 551.1; Determintion of Chlorintion Disinfetion Byproduts, Chlorinted Solvents, nd Hlogented Pestiides/Heriides in Drinking Wter y Liquid Liquid Extrtion nd Gs Chromtogrphy with Eletron-pture Detetion. USEPA Offie of Reserh nd Development, Cininnti, Ohio. USEPA, 23. Method 552.3; Determintion of Hloeti Aids nd Dlpon in Drinking Wter y Liquid Liquid Extrtion, Derivtiztion, nd Gs Chromtogrphy with Eletron Cpture Detetion. USEPA Offie of Reserh nd Development, Cininnti, Ohio. USEPA, 26. Ntionl primry drinking wter regultions: stge 2 disinfetnts nd disinfetion yproduts rules; finl rule. Federl Register 71 (2), Willims, S.L., Willims, R.L., Yun, J., Bteril Degrdtion of Hloeti Aids in the Distriution System. In: AWWA (Ed.). AWWA, Sn Diego, CA. Zheus, O.M., Iivninen, E.K., Nissinen, T.K., Lehtol, M.J., Mrtikinen, P.J., 2. Bteril iofilm formtion on polyvinyl hloride, polyethylene nd stinless steel exposed to ozonted wter. Wter Reserh 34 (1), Zhng, X., Miner, R.A., 22. Deomposition of trihloeti ids nd formtion of the orresponding trihlomethnes in drinking wter. Wter Reserh 36 (14),

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