Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Transcription

1 Supportive module 3 "Basics of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of major pulmonary diseases " Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease LECTURE IN INTERNAL MEDICINE FOR IV COURSE STUDENTS M. Yabluchansky, L. Bogun, L. Martymianova, O. Bychkova, N. Lysenko, M. Brynza V.N. Karazin National University Medical School Internal Medicine Dept.

2 Plan of the Lecture Definition Epidemiology Risk Factors and Etiology Mechanisms Classification Clinical presentation Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prophylaxis Abbreviations Diagnostic guidelines

3 Definition Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a type of lung disease by a decline in lung function over time in which subsets of patients may have dominant features of chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema characterized by long-term airflow obstruction that is not fully reversible with the main symptoms include shortness of breath and cough with sputum production typically worsens over time, some significant extra-pulmonary effects, and important comorbidities which may contribute to the severity of the disease in individual patients. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_diseas medicine.medscape.com/article/ overview?pa=%2foopqamiew%2fp1damq%2bj7kjxjrteuzo%2fmsnwciipmrs0neleqn1hb%2bszabfchcz uv8sivl8zjyv73guyw5rsbwa%3d%3d#showall

4 USMLE TEST A 50-year-old Caucasian male presents to the Emergency Department complaining of shortness of breath and unintentional weight loss over the past several months. On physical examination, the patient appears quite thin and breathes through pursed lips. Breath sounds are decreased in all lung fields. The patient's chest x-ray is provided in Figure A. Which of the following findings is expected on spirometry? 1. Increased FEV1 2. Decreased FEV1/FVC 3. Decreased TLC 4. Normal FEV1 but increased FVC 5. Normal lung values

5 USMLE TEST The correct answer is 2: The patient described above is suffering from Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), specifically emphysema. In emphysema, both FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second) and FVC (forced vital capacity) are decreased, however, FEV1 is decreased more, therefore FEV1/FVC is decreased. Incorrect answers: 1 and 3: Both increased FEV1 and decreased TLC (total lung capacity) would be more consistent with a restrictive lung disease. 4 and 5: Patients with COPD have a decreased FEV1 and a decreased FVC.

6 Epidemiology 1 Globally, as of 2010, COPD affected approximately 329 million people (4.8% of the population) In England, an estimated 0.84 million people (of 50 million) have a diagnosis of COPD; this translates into approximately one person in 59 receiving a diagnosis of COPD at some point in their lives In the United States approximately 6.3% of the adult population, totaling approximately 15 million people, have been diagnosed with COPD

7 Epidemiology 2 The disease affects men and women almost equally, as there has been increased tobacco use among women in the developed world COPD is more common in older people The number of deaths from COPD in 2012 became the third leading cause of death.

8 Epidemiology COPD - Deaths / Data projected to

9 Epidemiology Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Among Adults Aged 18 and Over in the United States,

10 Risk Factors and Etiology Smoking: smokers are 13 times more likely to die from the COPD Air Pollution: indoor and outdoor pollutants Occupational Dusts and Chemicals: industrial dust, chemicals, and gases Genetics: in rare cases, genetic factors can cause people who have never smoked (a lack of the protein α 1- antitrypsin (AAT), Salla disease, etc.) Intravenous drug use: the pulmonary vascular damage that results from the insoluble filler contained in methadone or methylphenidate Connective tissue disorders: Cutis laxa, Marfan syndrome, Ehlers- Danlos syndrome, Vasculitis syndrome, etc. Immunodeficiency syndromes Age: incidence COPD increases with age.

11 Risk Factors and Etiology

12 Mechanism General 1 Pathologic changes in COPD occur in the large (central) airways, the small (peripheral) bronchioles, and the lung parenchyma Most cases are the result of exposure to noxious stimuli, most often cigarette smoke The normal inflammatory response is amplified in persons prone to COPD development Increased numbers of activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages release elastases, resulting in lung destruction

13 Mechanism General 2 Accelerated aging and autoimmune mechanisms have also been proposed Cigarette smoke causes neutrophil influx, which is required for the secretion of MMPs; this suggests, that neutrophils and macrophages are required for the development of emphysema In addition to macrophages, T lymphocytes, particularly CD8 +, play an important role in the pathogenesis of smoking-induced airflow limitation

14 Mechanism General 35 The dysregulation of apoptosis and defective clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages play a prominent role in airway inflammation, particularly in emphysema In patients with stable COPD without known cardiovascular disease, there is a high prevalence of microalbuminuria, which is associated with hypoxemia independent of other risk factors.

15 Mechanism Schema 1 Immunology of COPD

16 Mechanism Schema 2 Multifaceted mechanisms in COPD

17 Mechanism Emphysema 1 Emphysema is a diagnosis defined by permanent enlargement of airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles This leads to a dramatic decline in the alveolar surface area available for gas exchange)

18 Mechanism Emphysema 2 Loss of alveoli leads to airflow limitation by 2 mechanisms: 1) loss of the alveolar walls results in a decrease in elastic recoil, which leads to airflow limitation, 2) loss of the alveolar supporting structure leads to airway narrowing, which further limits airflow Emphysema has 3 morphologic patterns: centriacinar, panacinar, distal acinar (paraseptal)

19 Mechanism Emphysema 3 Centriacinar emphysema is characterized by focal destruction limited to the respiratory bronchioles and the central portions of the acini Panacinar emphysema involves the entire alveolus distal to the terminal bronchiole Distal acinar emphysema is the least common form and involves distal airway structures, alveolar ducts, and sacs

20 Mechanism Emphysema 4 The gradual destruction of alveolar septae and of the pulmonary capillary bed in emphysema leads to a decreased ability to oxygenate blood The body compensates with lowered cardiac output and hyperventilation Eventually, patients develop muscle wasting and weight loss and are identified as "pink puffers.

21 USMLE TEST A 28-year-old patient presents to the hospital complaining of progressively worsening dyspnea and a dry cough. Radiographic imaging is shown below. Pulmonary function testing (PFT's) reveals a decreased FEV1 and FEV1/FVC, but an increase TLC. The patient states that he does not smoke. Which of the following conditions is most consistent with the patients symptoms? 1. Chronic bronchitis 2. Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency 3. Pneumothorax 4. Asthma 5. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis

22 USMLE TEST The correct answer is 2: The patient presents with symptoms consistent with emphysema, and his young age of presentation and absent smoking history suggest it is due to genetic alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Incorrect answers: 1: Though the spirometry values are consistent with an obstructive disease, chronic bronchitis is not consistent with the patient's other symptoms (lack of sputum, increased A-P diameter), 3: Pneumothorax, air within the pleural space, is not seen on the imaging provided and PFT's would likely show a decreased TLC if performed, 4: Though asthma is an obstructive disease, the patient's presentation is not consistent with an asthma exacerbation (wheezing, reversible nature, etc.), 5: Hypersensitivity pneumonitis would more commonly produce restrictive PFT values (normal/increased FEV1/FVC, decreased TLC).

23 Classification International Classification of Diseases X Diseases of the respiratory system Chronic lower respiratory diseases (J40-J47) J40 Bronchitis, not specified as acute or chronic J41 Simple and mucopurulent chronic bronchitis J42 Unspecified chronic bronchitis J43 Emphysema J44 Other chronic obstructive pulmonary disease J45 Asthma J46 Status asthmaticus J47 Bronchiectasis

24 Classification GOLD staging of severity for COPD, based on the value of FEV 1 Stage I Mild COPD FEV1/FVC<0.70 FEV1 80% normal Stage II Moderate FEV1/FVC<0.70 COPD Stage III Severe COPD FEV1/FVC<0.70 FEV % normal FEV % normal Stage IV Very Severe COPD FEV1/FVC<0.70 FEV1 <30% normal, or <50% normal with chronic respiratory failure present* * Usually, this means requiring long-term oxygen therapy.

25 Classification Severity staging of airflow obstruction according to the American Thoracic Society (ATS)/European Respiratory Society (ERS) Mild Moderate Moderately severe Severe FEV1/VC <5th percentile of predicted and FEV1 70% pred FEV1/VC <5th percentile of predicted and FEV % pred FEV1/VC <5th percentile of predicted and FEV % pred FEV1/VC <5th percentile of predicted and FEV % pred Very severe FEV1/VC <5th percentile of predicted and FEV1 <35% pred FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1 second; VC: vital capacity; % pred: % of predicted value; FVC: forced vital capacity.

26 Symptoms and Signs 1 The most important symptoms of COPD are breathlessness on exertion and chronic cough with or without phlegm The dyspnea usually worsens over time but is often not present in mild or moderate COPD The cough may be dry or productive Cough and phlegm often precede dyspnea on exertion by many years

27 Symptoms and Signs 2 Other symptoms include wheezing and chest tightness As the disease progresses and reaches the severe stages, fatigue, weight loss and anorexia may increase.

28 Clinical Manifestations 1 A characteristic of COPD is exacerbations or episodes of acute worsening of the respiratory symptoms. The most common causes of exacerbations are viral or bacterial infections Increased air pollution also appears to precipitate exacerbations of COPD

29 Clinical Manifestations 2 Some patients are particularly prone to exacerbations while others are not Two or more exacerbations during the previous year is the most important indicator of a future exacerbation.

30 Clinical Manifestations 3 Exacerbations accelerate the decline in lung function that characterises COPD, resulting in reduced physical activity, poorer quality of life, and an increased risk of death; they are also responsible for a large proportion of the healthcare costs attributable to COPD Patients with COPD often suffer from other diseases (comorbidities)

31 Clinical Manifestations 4 The comorbidities may share common risk factors with COPD, in particular cigarette smoking, and may also represent extrapulmonary manifestations or complications of COPD, such as muscle dysfunction due to inactivity Comorbidities may be secondary to treatment of COPD; for example, osteoporosis due to oral corticosteroid treatment.

32 Clinical Manifestations 5 The most common comorbidities in COPD are ischemic heart disease, anxiety and depression, osteoporosis, skeletal muscle dysfunction, gastroesophageal reflux, anaemia, lung cancer, diabetes and metabolic syndrome Comorbidities contribute to the overall severity and manifestations of the disease and can occur in mild, moderate or severe COPD

33 Clinical Manifestations 6 The clinical effects of COPD show considerable inter-individual variation, depending on which respiratory symptoms predominate, the frequency of exacerbations, the level and rate of lung function decline and the amount of emphysema, as well as comorbidities. Various subtypes of the disease are often termed phenotypes of COPD.

34 USMLE TEST A patient with a1-antitrypsin deficiency is warned by his physician that his increasing dyspnea may be worsened by his continued cigarette smoking. Which of the following factors, released by both neutrophils and alveolar macrophages, is responsible for the patient's condition? 1. Major Basic Protein 2. Antibodies against alpha-3 segment of collagen IV (COL4A3) 3. Mucus 4. Surfactant 5. Elastase

35 USMLE TEST The correct answer is 5: The patient is suffering from emphysema caused by his genetic disorder, a1-antitrypsin deficiency. This condition can be worsened by smoking-mediated increased release of elastase from macrophages and neutrophils. Incorrect answers: 1: Major basic protein is secreted by eosinophils. 2: Antibodies (secreted by B-cells) against type IV collagen is seen with Goodpasture syndrome. 3: Mucus is produced by mucous glands in the submucosa as well as by goblet cells. 4: Surfactant is produced by type II pneumocytes.

36 Complications Pneumonia COPD heart failure (Cor pulmonale) Lung cancer Diabetes Dementia Arrhythmias Osteoporosis Respiratory failure.

37 Diagnosis The diagnosis of COPD should be considered in anyone over the age of 35 to 40 who has shortness of breath, a chronic cough, sputum production, or frequent winter colds and a history of exposure to risk factors for the disease The formal diagnosis of COPD is made, when the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second over forced vital capacity (FEV 1 /FVC) is less than 70% of that predicted for a matched control Screening those without symptoms is not recommended.

38 Diagnosis Spirometry 1 PEFR = peak expiratory flow rate; TLC = total lung capacity.

39 Diagnosis Spirometry 2

40 Diagnosis Spirometry 3

41 Diagnosis Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Findings Patients with mild COPD have mild to moderate hypoxemia without hypercapnia As the disease progresses, hypoxemia worsens and hypercapnia may develop, with the latter commonly being observed as the FEV 1 falls below 1 L/s or 30% of the predicted value ph usually is near normal; a ph below 7.3 generally indicates acute respiratory compromise Chronic respiratory acidosis leads to compensatory metabolic alkalosis.

42 Diagnosis Frontal And Lateral Chest Radiographs Flattening of the diaphragm Increased retrosternal air space A long, narrow heart shadow Rapidly tapering vascular shadows accompanied by hyperlucency of the lungs Radiographs in patients with chronic bronchitis show increased bronchovascular markings and cardiomegaly.

43 Diagnosis Imaging Studies 1

44 Diagnosis Imaging Studies 2

45 Diagnosis High-Resolution Computed Tomography Greater sensitivity than standard chest radiography High specificity for diagnosing emphysema (outlined bullae are not always visible on a radiograph) May provide an adjunctive means of diagnosing various forms of COPD (e.g., lower lobe disease may suggest alpha1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency May help the clinician determine whether surgical intervention would benefit the patient.

46 Diagnosis Imaging Studies 3

47 Diagnosis Imaging Studies 4

48 Diagnosis Other Tests 1 Hematocrit (patients with polycythemia) Serum potassium (diuretics, beta-adrenergic agonists, and theophylline act to lower potassium levels) Measure AAT in patients < 40 years or with a family history of emphysema at an early age Sputum evaluation (a transformation from mucoid in stable chronic bronchitis to purulent in acute exacerbations).

49 Diagnosis Other Tests 2 Pulse oximetry provides instant feedback on a patient's status Electrocardiography can establish that hypoxia is not cardiac The distance walked in 6 minutes is a predictor of mortality in patients with moderate COPD Right-sided heart catheterization can confirm pulmonary artery hypertension.

50 USMLE TEST A 60-year-old male presents to your office complaining of dyspnea on exertion. He reports smoking two packs of cigarettes per day for the past 25 years. A lung CT is shown in Figure A. Which of the following is LEAST likely to be involved in the pathogenesis of this patient's disease? 1. Immunoglobulin A 2. Proteinase 3 3. Neutrophil elastase 4. Proteases released by macrophages 5. Matrix metalloproteinases

51 USMLE TEST The correct answer is 1: This patient most likely has centriacinar emphysema. Enlarged airspaces can be seen on CT, contributing to the diagnosis. IgA does not play a role in the development of emphysema. Incorrect answers: 2-5: All of the above items are normally implicated in the pathogenesis of emphysema through their functions in lung parenchymal breakdown or remodeling.

52 Diagnosis Differentiation Asthma: diagnosed by establishing reversibility or variability of airflow obstruction either by spirometry or peak flow measurements after treatment with a bronchodilator or steroid Other diagnoses to consider are congestive heart failure, bronchiectasis, allergic fibrosing alveolitis, pneumoconiosis, asbestosis or other restrictive lung conditions, tuberculosis, lung cancer, obliterative bronchiolitis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, anaemia or generally poor physical condition.

53 Management 1 Assessment and monitoring of disease, reduction of risk factors, management of stable COPD, management of exacerbations The goals of management are to relieve symptoms, prevent disease progression, improve exercise tolerance, improve health status, prevent and treat complications and exacerbations, reduce mortality and prevent or minimize side-effects from treatment

54 Management 2 Important components of management are smoking cessation, medical treatment with bronchodilators as well as inhibitors of inflammation, physical exercise and, in advanced disease, oxygen therapy, influenza vaccination once a year, pneumococcal vaccination once every 5 years Pulmonary rehabilitation is important, the most effective component of pulmonary rehabilitation is physical exercise.

55 Management Approaches to Management by COPD Stage 1 Stage I (mild obstruction): short-acting bronchodilator as needed Stage II (moderate obstruction): short-acting bronchodilator as needed; long-acting bronchodilator(s); cardiopulmonary rehabilitation Stage III (severe obstruction): short-acting bronchodilator as needed; long-acting bronchodilator(s); cardiopulmonary rehabilitation; inhaled glucocorticoids if repeated exacerbations

56 Management Approaches to Management by COPD Stage 2 Stage IV (very severe obstruction or moderate obstruction with evidence of chronic respiratory failure): short-acting bronchodilator as needed; long-acting bronchodilator(s); cardiopulmonary rehabilitation; inhaled glucocorticoids if repeated exacerbation; long-term oxygen therapy (if criteria met); consider surgical options such as lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) and lung transplantation.

57 Management Medications 1 Short-acting beta 2 -agonist bronchodilators (e.g., albuterol, metaproterenol, levalbuterol, pirbuterol) Long-acting beta 2 -agonist bronchodilators (e.g., salmeterol, formoterol, arformoterol, indacaterol, vilanterol) Respiratory anticholinergics (e.g., ipratropium, tiotropium, aclidinium) Xanthine derivatives (i.e., theophylline) Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitors (i.e., roflumilast)

58 Management Medications 2 Inhaled corticosteroids (e.g., fluticasone, budesonide) Oral corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone) Beta 2 -agonist and anticholinergic combinations (e.g., ipratropium and albuterol, umeclidinium bromide/vilanterol inhaled) Beta 2 -agonist and corticosteroid combinations (e.g., budesonide/formoterol, fluticasone and salmeterol).

59 Management Bronchodilators 1 Inhaled bronchodilators are the primary medications used and result in a small overall benefit There are two major types, β 2 agonists and anticholinergics; both exist in long-acting and short-acting forms Short-acting agents are recommended on an as needed basis In those with more severe disease, long-acting agents are recommended

60 Management Bronchodilators 2 If long-acting bronchodilators are insufficient, then inhaled corticosteroids are typically added With respect to long-acting agents, it is unclear if tiotropium (a long-acting anticholinergic) or longacting beta agonists (LABAs) are better, and it may be worth trying each and continuing the one that worked best

61 Management Bronchodilators 3 There are several short-acting β 2 agonists available including salbutamol and terbutaline; they provide some relief of symptoms for four to six hours Long-acting β 2 agonists such as salmeterol and formoterol are often used as maintenance therapy; when used with inhaled steroids they increase the risk of pneumonia There are two main anticholinergics used in COPD, ipratropium and tiotropium; ipratropium is a shortacting agent while tiotropium is long-acting

62 Management Bronchodilators 4 Anticholinergics can cause dry mouth and urinary tract symptoms ND are also associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke Aclidinium, another long acting agent which came to market in 2012, has been used as an alternative to tiotropium.

63 Management Corticosteroids 1 Corticosteroids are usually used in inhaled form but may also be used as tablets to treat and prevent acute exacerbations While inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) have not shown benefit for people with mild COPD, they decrease acute exacerbations in those with either moderate or severe disease By themselves ICS have no effect on overall one-year mortality

64 Management Corticosteroids 2 When used in combination with a LABAs they may decrease mortality compared to either ICS or LABAs alone Inhaled steroids are associated with increased rates of pneumonia Long-term treatment with steroid tablets is associated with significant side effects.

65 Management Other medication 1 Long-term antibiotics, specifically those from the macrolide class such as erythromycin, reduce the frequency of exacerbations in those who have two or more a year This practice may be cost effective in some areas of the world Concerns include that of antibiotic resistance and hearing problems with azithromycin

66 Management Other medication 2 Methylxanthines such as theophylline generally cause more harm than benefit and thus are usually not recommended, but may be used as a secondline agent in those not controlled by other measures Mucolytics may help to reduce exacerbations in some people with chronic bronchitis Cough medicines are not recommended.

67 USMLE TEST A 65-year-old male presented to his primary care physician with exertional dyspnea. The patient had a 30-year history of smoking one pack of cigarettes per day. Physical examination reveals a barrel-chested appearance, and it is noted that the patient breathes through pursed lips. Spirometry shows decreased FEV1, FVC, and FEV1/FVC. This patient s upper lobes are most likely to demonstrate which of the following? 1. Panacinar emphysema 2. Centriacinar emphysema 3. Calcified nodule 4. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis 5. Uncalcified nodule

68 USMLE TEST The correct answer is 2: This clinical presentation is consistent with centriacinar emphysema, which is typically found in patients suffering from COPD as a result of long-term cigarette smoking. Incorrect answers: 1: Panacinar emphysema is most commonly the result of alpha-1- antitrypsin deficiency rather than chronic smoking. 3 & 5: A pulmonary lung nodule raises suspicion for cancer, granuloma, fungal infection, or a number of other conditions. A calcified nodule is more likely to be the result of a granuloma resulting from a disease such as previous fungal infection, while a spiculated uncalcified nodule is suspicious for lung cancer or a metastasis. 4: The incidence of hypersensitivity pneumonitis in smokers is actually less than non-smokers. This pattern would not be expected in an emphysematous patient.

69 Management Oxygen 1 Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest (a partial pressure of oxygen of less than mmhg or oxygen saturations of less than 88%) In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke

70 Management Oxygen 2 During acute exacerbations, many require oxygen therapy; the use of high concentrations of oxygen without taking into account a person's oxygen saturations may lead to increased levels of carbon dioxide and worsened outcomes In those at high risk of high carbon dioxide levels, oxygen saturations of 88 92% are recommended, while for those without this risk recommended levels are 94 98%.

71 Management Exacerbations 1 Acute exacerbations are typically treated by increasing the use of short-acting bronchodilators; this commonly includes a combination of a shortacting inhaled beta agonist and anticholinergic These medications can be given either via a metered-dose inhaler with a spacer or via a nebulizer with both appearing to be equally effective Nebulization may be easier for those who are more unwell

72 Management Exacerbations 2 Oral corticosteroids improve the chance of recovery and decrease the duration of symptoms; 5 days of steroids work as well as In those with a severe exacerbation, antibiotics improve outcomes ( amoxicillin, doxycycline and azithromycin) The FDA recommends against the use of fluoroquinolones when other options are available due to higher risks of serious side effects

73 Management Exacerbations 3 There is no clear evidence for those with less severe cases For those with respiratory failure with acutely raised CO 2 levels non-invasive positive pressure ventilation decreases the probability of death or the need of intensive care admission Additionally, theophylline may have a role in those who do not respond to other measures

74 Management Exacerbations 4 Fewer than 20% of exacerbations require hospital admission In those without acidosis from respiratory failure, home care ("hospital at home") may be able to help avoid some admissions.

75 Management Nebulizers and Spacers Nebulizer Spacer

76 Management Surgery For those with very severe disease, surgery is sometimes helpful and may include lung transplantation or lung volume reduction surgery Lung volume reduction surgery involves removing the parts of the lung most damaged by emphysema allowing the remaining, relatively good lung to expand and work better

77 Management Pulmonary Rehabilitation Patient and family education Smoking cessation Medical management (including oxygen and immunization) Respiratory and chest physiotherapy Physical therapy with bronchopulmonary hygiene, exercise, and vocational rehabilitation Psychosocial support.

78 Management Patient Education It is important to educate the patient with COPD about the disease and to encourage his or her active participation in therapy The 2 most essential points for the patient to understand are as follows: The dangers of smoking and the improvement in quality of life attainable with smoking cessation The need to seek medical care early during an exacerbation and to not wait until they are in distress.

79 Prognosis 1 COPD is a chronic, progressive disease showing great variation in its natural history Spirometry providing data on FEV 1 and FVC is the most common measure of disease progression A large cohort of patients with COPD of GOLD stage II+ followed up every 6 months for 3 years showed a mean annual decline in FEV 1 of 33 ml An annual decline in FEV 1 >40 ml was seen in 38% of the patients, while 8% showed an average annual increase of 20 ml

80 Prognosis 2 Current smoking and emphysema are related to more rapid decline in FEV 1. Factors that indicate a poor prognosis are frequent exacerbations, respiratory insufficiency, nutritional status and comorbidities.

81 Prophylaxis 1 Identification and reduction of exposure to risk factors are important steps in the prevention and treatment of COPD All individuals who smoke should be encouraged to quit regardless of their disease status Smokers without COPD should be offered smokingcessation advice Preventing passive smoking in fetal and early life is important to reduce the risk of COPD in adult life

82 Prophylaxis 2 Reduction of exposure to smoke from indoor biomass combustion, particularly among women and children, is important to reduce the prevalence of COPD Prevention of COPD exacerbations is important: influenza and pneumococcal vaccination as well as treatment with inhaled long-acting bronchodilators and inhaled corticosteroids all work to reduce exacerbations and hospitalisations for COPD.

83 Abbreviations AAT -protein α 1- antitrypsin ABG - Arterial Blood Gas COPD - Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease FEV 1 - forced expiratory volume in 1 second ICS -inhaled corticosteroids LABAs - long-acting beta agonists

84 Diagnostic and treatment guidelines Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society Treatment of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: the GOLD Guidelines Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults in primary and secondary care Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management Chronic-Obstructive-Pulmonary-Disease