Research Methods. Research. Experimentation

Transcription

1 Research Methods A systematic way of answering questions with data collection and analysis. Good research questions have empirical answers. Empiricism: a philosophical position that all knowledge is derived from the senses. Francis Bacon ( ) John Locke ( ) Research Research requires Training right here, right now with basics then PSYC 2200 (Research Methods) More independent research with faculty. Graduate School training. Available resources Personnel Time Money Ethical Considerations Is the project ethical? Will anyone get hurt? Some questions must go unanswered Experimentation Looking for lawful functional relations between variables Independent variable Dependent variable Functional relation: when the value of a dependent variable systematically varies with the value of a independent variable. B = f(a) reliable direct replications generality systematic replications

2 Steps in Experimentation 1. Making initial observations Talk with other scientists. Reading articles. Naturalistic observation. Steps in Experimentation 2. Formulating the experimental question A brief, but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn. Open-ended questions: I wonder will happen to Y if I manipulate X. Directional questions: I wonder if Y will increase if I manipulate X Steps in Experimentation 3. Designing the study. Move from vague constructs to specific operational definitions. defines the independent variable in terms of the operations needed to produce it defines the dependent variable in terms of the operations needed to measure it For example Within-subjects and Between-groups Within Subjects: present more than one condition to individuals in experiments Between groups: take large groups of people, assign one condition to each group, and compare differences in average measure between groups For example

3 Steps in Experimentation 4. Conducting the study Typically the researcher wants to follow a plan for conducting the experiment A plan or experimental protocol is good because it helps the experimenters maintain control But often some things are adjusted during the course of an experiment Steps in Experimentation 5. Evaluating the data when a functional relation exists, a well made graph will show the relation between the independent and dependent variable statistics are useful when the functional relation is not strong or unclear, or when the relation needs to be quantified Steps in Experimentation 6. Determining the theoretical and practical implications. Few data speak for themselves Data must be explained and organized into a larger explanatory framework; a theory Practical uses for results often have to be explained

4 Steps in Experimentation 7. Share finding with others colloquia: informal discussion among faculty and students conferences: formal paper presentations and posters journal articles: formal well written paper peer reviewed before accepted books Facilitated Communication Rosemary Crossley in Australia in the 1970 s Professor of Education Douglas Biklen of Syracuse University in the 1980 s. A procedure where a person was trained to help autistic children communicate Autism is a disorder characterized by: impaired social interaction (none of the usual facial expressions, does not share things of interest to others). impaired communication (delay or total lack of) repetitive and stereotyped behavior (spinning things or self in circles) Family desperate to communicate Facilitated communication involved a person sitting next to child holding their arm up in the air gently letting it come down on a letter board or computer keyboard over and over until words are spelled out A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z.,!?

5 Biklen observed 21 Australian Autistic patients communicate sophisticated ideas their facilitated communication Biklen argued that autism is not a problem of cognitive skills, but a problem of voluntary motor skills Incredible interactions occurred some autistic children were communicating sophisticated ideas in classrooms special spelling and unique mistakes some autistic children were telling stories of severe abuse by their caregivers Autistic person put on DNR order at a hospital after indicating affirmative to DNR request with FC Douglas Wheeler and colleagues Make initial observations: Biklen and colleagues have found a way to communicate with autistic patients through the new technique of FC. Formulate the question: Is it because the autistic children are spelling out the words or is it because the facilitators are communicating. Designing the study: picked 12 excellent facilitators and autistic patients and have them experience three conditions. patient alone asked to name items shown to them in a pictures patient alone asked to spell the name of the items in the pictures patient and facilitator asked to spell out the name of the items shown to them in pictures

6 Conducting the study: The patients and facilitators followed the procedure well No big problem except there were some coding issues (e.g., when a child spelled food when shown bread; right or wrong) Evaluating the data: Patient alone could not name items Patient alone could not spell items Patient with facilitator could spell and identify item in pictures when they saw the same picture But when the facilitator and patient were shown different pictures the patient never spelled the correct name of the item in the picture moreover, they always spelled the picture the facilitator saw Determining Implications: Wheeler and colleagues showed that autistic patients were not communicating with FC. The apparent communication was really the facilitators behavior. There is no evidence that autistic children do not suffer from cognitive impairment.

7 Books Read Books Read Creativeness Sharing findings Journal article for scientists: this information was reported in the scientific journal reviewed by peers, Mental Retardation Mass media: This project was also reported in the news show Frontline; a PBS show Correlational Designs Correlational Studies Example of a nonexperimental design Describes relations between variables No manipulated variables Statistic describes relation : indicates a perfect positive correlation -1: indicates a perfect negative correlation 0: indicates a perfect no correlation For example, 0.85 is a is a Scatterplots Correlational Designs Age Hours of TV Hours of TV

8 Correlational Designs Correlational studies do not indicate causation. 5 Crime Index Ice Cream Consumption Correlational Designs Correlational studies do not indicate causation. 5 Crime Index Temperature Observational Techniques Observational techniques Nonexperimental design Data are simply recorded as they occur in the natural environment; descriptive Obtrusive or nonobtrusive Jane Goodall Diane Fossey Birute Galdikas

9 Surveys Surveys are a nonexperimental design Surveys are a standardized way of asking questions and/or getting answers. Standardization refers to items being the same for all; reduces bias. Alternative to direct observation Difficult to observe behavior Thinking or feeling Attitudes Ideas Polls, course evaluations, votes, etc. Do you Agree strongly Agree somewhat Survey Agree slightly Disagree slightly Disagree somewhat Disagree Strongly Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so. The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want One should take action only when sure it is morally right Most people are basically good and kind Test of Machiavellianism Surveys Surveys are problematic in that people are often not accurate Famous study LaPierre 1930 Californians about their attitudes toward Asians (the Chinese) and their behavior toward Asians Researcher called 40 restaurants and asked if they allowed Chinese to dine at the restaurant and they all said no When he and his Chinese friend showed up, they were seated in all but one of the restaurants

10 Archival Studies Use sources of evidence based on records or documents relating to activities. Example study Are the people who wear black clothes the bad guys? Compared penalty records of football and hockey teams who wore black uniforms to those who did not. The former were penalized more often for over-aggressiveness infractions than the latter. Content Analysis Like an archival study, but usually restricted to one type of document Example study: Do men generally seek out younger women and women older men? Content analyzed classified adds. Confirmed, men looking for women younger women and vice versa (on average)