3 rd week ectoderm thickens to form neural plate, which is later flanked by neural folds This neural groove deepens, forming a neural tube by 4 th
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1 3 rd week ectoderm thickens to form neural plate, which is later flanked by neural folds This neural groove deepens, forming a neural tube by 4 th week differentiates into the CNS = brain development begins
2 Between ectoderm and neural tube a neural crest forms, and the 3 primary brain vesicles appear: 1. FOREBRAIN, or prosencephalon 2. MIDBRAIN, or mesencephalon 3. HINDBRAIN, or rhombencephalon The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord
3 Week 5 Secondary brain vesicles arise Forebrain divides: telencephalon ( endbrain ) and diencephalon ( interbrain ) Hindbrain constricts: metencephalon ( afterbrain ) and myelencephalon ( spinal brain ) Eventually the endbrain sprouts two lateral swellings like Mickey s ears This eventually becomes the cerebrum The other brain structures form the midbrain, pons, cerebellum and the medulla oblongata All but the cerebellum form the brain stem
4 Brain continues to grow rapidly; positions change Midbrain & cervical flexures develop Surfaces crease & fold = convolutions Increase surface area = more neurons
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6 Brain stem- continuous with spinal cord Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain Diencephalon- above brain stem Thalamus, hypothalamus & pineal gland Cerebrum- at top and largest part Surface covered with gray matter- cortex Beneath is cerebral white matter Cerebellum- back of brain stem Means little brain Cranial meninges- dura mater, arachnoid mater & pia mater
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9 Lateral ventricles, one deep within each hemisphere are large C-shaped chambers They are separated by a thin membrane, the septum pellucidum Interventricular foramen allows comminucation between the lateral ventricle and the narrow third ventricle The third and fourth ventricles are connected by the canal-like cerebral aqueduct
10 3 basic regions: 1. Cerebral cortex 2. Internal white mater 3. Basal nuclei (gray matter within white matter) Surface folds = gyri Shallow grooves = sulci Deeper grooves that separate brain= fissures Longitudinal Fissure- divides it into left & right hemispheres Connected by corpus collosum Transverse fissure- separates cerebral hemispheres from cerebellum
11 Each hemisphere has 4 lobes Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital Central sulcus separates frontal & parietal Precentral gyrus anterior to sulcus= primary motor area Postcentral gyrus = primary sensory area Each hemisphere is concerned with the sensory and motor functions of the opposite side of the body. The two hemispheres are not equal in function.
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15 Specialized areas anatomically located Sensory areas receive input and responsible for perception Motor areas- initiate movements Associative areas- complex integration: e.g. memory, emotion, reasoning, etc.
16 Mainly from anterior part of hemisphere Primary motor area- precentral gyrus Broca s speech area- interacts with premotor area & primary motor area to regulate breathing and speech muscles
17 Primary somatosensory area- postcentral gyrus. input includes: touch, proprioception, pain, itching, tickle, temperature Primary visual (see) area- occipital lobe Primary auditory (hear) area- temporal lobe Primary gustatory (taste) area base of postcentral gyrus Primary olfactory (smell) area- medial aspect of temporal lobe
18 Relay information from periphery to cerebral cortex 3 neurons in each pathway. Posterior column- medial lemniscus pathway Fine touch- body location, texture, size Proprioception- position & motion of body parts Vibratory sensations- fluctuating touch stimuli
19 Adjacent to sensory & motor areas connected with tracts- interpret information E.g. somatosensory association area Posterior to primary somatosensory area Integrates sensation- exact shape & texture of object compares with stored memories Wernike s area- left temporal & parietal lobes Interprets meaning of speech Right hemisphere adds emotional content
20 Left gets input from & sends output to right side of body and vice versa Left important for spoken & written language, numerical & scientific skills & reasoning Right more involved with spatial and pattern recognition and emotional content
21 Deep gray = basal nuclei (basal ganglia) Globus palladus, putamen, caudate nucleus
22 Thalamus- critical relay for sensory input Transmits motor information from cerebellum & basal nuclei to cerebrum Hypothalamus- important for homeostasis Control of ANS-regulation of many activities Control of pituitary and hormone production Regulation of emotional & behavior patterns Regulation of eating & drinking Control of body temperature Regulation of circadian rhythms & states of consciousness Pineal gland- secretes melatonin (regulates sleep/wake cycle)
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24 Connects pons to Diencephalon Large tracts = cerebral peduncles (motor) Nuclei = substantia nigra, red nuclei, cranial nerves III & IV Superior colliculi nuclei involved in tracking visual stimuli Inferior colliculi auditory input & startle reflex
25 Pons (bridge)- nuclei & tracts Connect left & right of cerebellum Ascending & descending tracts Nuclei motor relays from cerebrum to cerebellum, respiration & cranial nerves V, VI, VII, VIII
26 Medulla Oblongata- inferior part of brainstem white matter extending between spinal cord & other parts of brain several nuclei: cardiovascular center (heart rate) Medullary rhythmicity area (respiratory rhythm) Other sensory & reflex motor areas Some related to cranial nerves
27 Two cerebellar hemispheres Posterior to medulla and pons, below cerebrum Cerebellar cortex gray matter Tree like white matter & nuclei Attached to brain stem via cerebellar peduncles
28 Gets wide range of sensory input Compares with programmed motor activity from cerebral cortex Smoothes & coordinates complex activities Regulates posture & balance Required for skilled motor activities
29 Ring of structures on inner border of cerebrum and floor of diencephalon emotional brain pain, pleasure, anger, affection, docility Involuntary activity related to survival Important in memory development
30 Netlike arrangement of gray and white mater Ascending part = Reticular Activating System (RAS) Projects to cerebral cortex & helps maintain consciousness Inactivation => sleep
31 Circulates through ventricles of brain and the subarachnoid space. 4 ventricles: 2 lateral, third & fourth Formed in choroid plexuses = Specialized capillary networks in wall of ventricles covered by ependymal cells Flows through ventricles then from 4 th to central canal of spinal cord & subarachnoid cells Reabsorbed through arachnoid villi into superior saggital sinus
32 Requires ~20% body s oxygen supply 4 min lack => permanent damage Requires continuous glucose supply Protected by Blood-brain barrier Allows lipid soluble materials: O 2, CO 2, alcohol, anesthetic agents but controls entry of other materials Created by tight capillaries and glial cells
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39 Spinothalamic pathways- anterior & lateral spinothalamic tracts Relay impulses for pain, tickle, itch & thermal sensations.
40 Signals converge on lower motor neurons Lower motor neurons stimulate muscles directly Input comes from: Local interneurons- e.g. reflexes Upper motor neurons- corticospinal tracts Basal ganglia- help with muscle tone Cerebellum- coordination
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42 Process for storing & retrieving information Involves structural & functional changes Involves association areas, parts of limbic system & diencephalon Skill memory also involves cerebellum & basal ganglia
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44 I Olfactory- sensory (smell) II Optic- sensory (vision) III Oculomotor- motor (eye) IV Trochlear- motor (eye) V Trigeminal- Mixed Sensory around eyes & upper mouth motor to chewing VI Abducens- motor (eye) VII Facial- mixed Sensory to front of tongue & motor to facial expression, lacrimal and some salivary glands
45 VIII Vestibulocochlear- sensory (ear) IX Glossopharyngeal- mixed Sensory for rest of tongue, pharynx & palate, blood pressure Motor to pharyngeal muscles, parotid salivary gland X Vagus- mixed (major visceral nerve) Sensory from pharynx, ear, diaphragm, visceral organs in ventral cavity Motor to palatal & pharyngeal muscles & organs in ventral cavity XI Accessory- Motor to voluntary muscles including sternocleidomastoid and trapezius XII Hypoglossal- motor to tongue
46 Rapid growth during first few years Size of neurons & proliferation of neuroglia increases Increases development of dendritic branches & synaptic contacts Decline in brain mass from early adulthood on
47 Spinal cord in vertebral cavity- Surrounded by bone Wrapped in meninges- 3 layers of connective tissue Spinal cord meninges are continuous with brain meninges
48 Epidural space lined with fat Dura mater- tough,dense connective tissue Extends to 2 nd sacral vertebra Well beyond spinal cord Arachnoid mater- collagen and elastic fibers Subarachnoid space- cerebral spinal fluid circulates in this space Pia mater- transparent layer adheres to surface of brain & spinal cord Contains blood vessels
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50 Runs to 2 nd lumbar vertebra Roots of spinal nerves for lumbar, sacral & coccygeal nerves in vertebral cavity before leaving = Cauda Equina Enlargements: cervical & lumbar Include nerves for upper & lower limbs Each spinal segment gives rise to a spinal nerve 31 pairs
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52 Two grooves- left & right halves Anterior median fissure & posterior median sulcus Gray matter- 3 horns on each side Anterior, posterior, lateral Anterior- somatic motor neurons Posterior- sensory neurons Lateral- autonomic motor neurons
53 White matter- organized into columns Anterior, posterior & lateral white columns Each column contains one or more tracts having a common destination Sensory = ascending tracts Carry information toward brain Motor = descending tracts Carry information down spinal cord
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55 Serve particular area of body Contain 2 bundles of axons = roots Dorsal root- only sensory axons Swelling called dorsal root ganglion Contains Cell bodies of sensory neurons Ventral root- axons of somatic & autonomic motor neurons
56 Named and numbered according to level of vertebra they emerge from C1-8, T1-12, L1-5, S1-5 & 1 coccygeal C1 from above atlas Rest through intervertebral foramina
57 Roots unite to form nerve at foramina Mixed sensory & motor axons Each axon wrapped in endoneurium Axons grouped in fascicles wrapped in perineurium Outer covering = epineurium
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59 After leaving vertebra nerves branch Some join with axons from neighboring nerves to form plexuses Names then relate to area they are in or region innervated Spinal nerves T2-T11 do not form plexuses= intercostal nerves Supply abdominal muscles, skin of chest & back and muscles between robs.
60 Cervical plexus- posterior head, neck, shoulders & diaphragm Brachial plexus-upper limbs & some neck & shoulder muscles Lumbar plexus- abdominal wall, external genitals & part of lower limbs e.g. ilioinguinal, femoral, obdurator nerves Sacral plexus- buttocks, perineum & lower limbs e.g. Gluteal, sciatic & pudendal nerves
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62 Routes signals along pathways Gray matter integrates signals Reflex = fast involuntary sequence of actions in response to a stimulus Inborn reflex e.g. withdrawal reflex Can also have learned reflexes, e.g. driving skills Can be spinal or cranial integration
63 1. Sensory receptor- responds to stimulus Tap below patella 2. Sensory neuron- to dorsal horn & brain 3. Integrating center- e.g. single synapse Sensory to motor neurons 4. Motor neuron- from center to effector Via ventral horn 5. Effector- responder (muscle or gland) Patellar reflex- rectus femoris contracts
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b. The groove between the two crests is called 2. The neural folds move toward each other & the fuse to create a
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