Progress In Medical Radiation Physics

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1 Progress In Medical Radiation Physics

2 Progress In Medical Radiation Physics Volume 1

3 Progress In Medical Radiation Physics Series Editor: COLIN G. ORTON, Ph.D. Department of Radiation Oncology Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, Michigan Editorial Board: PETER R. ALMOND, Ph.D. Department of Physics M.D. Anderson Hospital Houston, Texas JOHN S. CLIFTON, M.Sc. Department of Medical Physics University College Hospital London, England ROY E. ELLIS, Ph.D. t Head Department of Medical Physics The General Infirmary Leeds, Yorkshire, England J.F. FOWLER, Ph.D. Director, Gray Laboratory Mount Vernon Hospital Northwood, Middlesex, England JAMES G. KEREIAKES, Ph.D. Eugene L. Saenger Radioisotope Laboratory Cincinnati General Hospital Cincinnati, Ohio JACK S. KROHMER, Ph.D. Department of Radiology Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, Michigan CHRISTOPHER H. MARSHALL, Ph.D. N. Y. U. Medical Center New York, New York tdeceased

4 Progress In Medical Radiation Physics Volume 1 Edited by COLIN G. ORTON Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit. Michigan PLENUM PRESS NEW YORK AND LONDON

5 ISBN DOI / ISBN (ebook) 1982 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1982 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

6 Contributors J. J. Broerse, Radiobiological Institute TNO, Rijswijk, The Netherlands Christodoulos Constantinou, Radiation Physics Department, St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, England. Present address: University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin J. R. Cunningham, The Ontario Cancer Institute, 500 Sherbourne Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M4X 1K9 S. John Gatley, Medical Physics Section, Department of Radiology, 3321 Sterling Hall, 475 N. Charter Street, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Michael Goitein, Division of Radiation Biophysics, Department of Radiation Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, and Harvard Medical School. U. KilIat, Philips GmbH Forschungslaboratorium Hamburg, Vogt-K611n Str. 30, D 2000 Hamburg 54 B. J. Mijnheer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Robert J. Nickles, Medical Physics Section, Department of Radiology, 3321 Sterling Hall, 475 N. Charter Street, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin David R. White, Radiation Physics Department, St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Londbn, England v

7 Preface New developments in the application of radiation to medicine are occurring so rapidly that this is possibly the fastest growing branch of medicine today. In the past decade alone, we have seen enormous progress made in techniques used both for the diagnosis of disease, such as computerized tomography, digital radiography, ultrasonography, computerized nuclear medicine scanning, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and for its treatment, such as the radiotherapeutic utilization of high-let radiations, and the widespread application of computers to perform elegant dosimetry calculations for 3-D treatment planning and imaging. This series will provide in-depth reviews of the many spectacular technical advances and sophisticated concepts, which are developing in medical radiation physics at such an alarming rate that it has become increasingly difficult to keep one's knowledge up-to-date. These comprehensive review articles will help to bridge the communications gap between the international research community, and the medical physicists and physicians whose responsibility it is to put these advances into clinical use. These articles should also be of value to the increasing number of physical scientists and engineers who are interested in the application of their knowledge and talents to the field of medicine. Colin G. Orton vii

8 Contents 1. Progress in Neutron Dosimetry for Biomedical Applications J. J. Broerse and B. J. Mijnheer 1. Introduction 1 2. Neutron Sources Cyclotrons d + T Neutron Sources Reactor Neutron Beams of Special Design Principles and Methods in Neutron Dosimetry Ionization Chambers Physical Parameters for Dosimetry with Ionization Chambers Calorimeters Fluence Measurements Solid-State Dosimeters Determination of the Gamma-Ray Absorbed Dose in a Neutron Field Determination of the Neutron Absorbed Dose in a Photon Field Assessment of Radiation Quality Neutron and Gamma-Ray Energy Spectra Microdosimetric Parameters and Techniques Lineal Energy Spectra in the Phantom Dosimetry for Radiobiology Interface Dosimetry Absorbed Dose Distributions in Animals Dosimetry for Radiotherapy Protocols for Neutron Dosimetry for External Beam Therapy Absorbed Dose Distributions in the Standard Phantom Absorbed Dose Distributions in the Patient Dosimetry for in vivo Neutron Activation Analysis Results of Dosimetry Intercomparisons ix

9 x 9. Conclusions and Recommendations References Contents Tissue Inhomogeneity Corrections in Photon-Beam Treatment Planning J. R. Cunningham 1. Introduction Survey of Common Dose-Correction Methods 2.1. Methods Based on Water-Equivalent Depth 2.2. Power Law Tissue-Air Ratio Method The Equivalent Tissue-Air Ratio Method Volume Integration of Differential Scatter-Air Ratios 2.5. Monte Carlo Calculations Interface Effects-Electronic Equilibrium 4. Summary and Conclusions References Anthropomorphic Phantom Materials David R. White and Christodoulos Constantinou 1. Introduction 1.1. The Need for Tissue Simulation 1.2. Terminology 1.3. A Brief History 2. Radiation Properties of Real Tissues 2.1. Tissues Requiring Simulation 2.2. Radiation Characteristics 3. Simulation Procedures 3.1. Criteria for Tissue Equivalence 3.2. The Effective Atomic Number (2) Method 3.3. The Basic Data Method 3.4. The Extended Y Method 3.5. Elemental Equivalence 4. Recent Tissue Substitutes 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Base Materials and Additives 4.3. Recommended Tissue Substitutes 5. Manufacturing Procedures and Quality Control 5.1. Manufacturing Bulk Materials 5.2. Manufacturing Specialized Phantoms 5.3. Quality Control 6. Recent Phantom Studies 6.1. Radiotherapy

10 Contents 6.2. Diagnostic Radiology Nuclear Medicine and Health Physics 7. Discussion References xi Applications of Computed Tomography in Radiotherapy Treatment Planning Michael Goitein 1. Introduction General Studies of the Impact of CT New England Medical Center Study Massachusetts General Hospital Study Royal Marsden Hospital Study Other General Studies Discussion Site-Specific Studies of the Impact of CT Monitoring of Tumors During Treatments and in Posttreatment Follow-up Treatment Outcome Cost Effectiveness Patient Positioning Breathing Contrast Media Bolus Unavoidable Discrepancies From Scan to Treatment Use of CT to Select Position for Treatment Dosimetry x- and Gamma-Ray External Beam Therapy Brachytherapy Charged-Particle Therapy Tissue Characterization Tomochemistry Spatial Structure Radiologic-Pathologic Correlation Specifications for CT Scanners to be Used in Treatment Planning Introduction Three-Dimensional Delineation of Tumors and Adjacent Normal Structures Patient Positioning Features Necessary for the Calculation of Dose Summary of Specifications Relationship between Diagnostician and Therapist Inexpensive Scanners Treatment Planning Programs

11 xii 11. Epilogue.... Appendix: Review of Site-Specific Studies on the Impact of CT AI. Prostatic Cancer A2. Bladder Cancer A3. Other Pelvic and Abdominal Diseases A4. Thorax and Chest Wall A5. Head and Neck Tumors A6. Other Sites References Contents s. Positron Imaging: Some Practical Considerations Robert J. Nickles and S. John Gatley 1. Introduction Scope of the Problem 1.2. Linkage Historical Perspective 1.4. A Modest Alternative 2. Positron Imaging 2.1. Physical Background A Modular Positron Camera 3. Radiopharmaceutical Synthesis 3.1. General Considerations Review of Recent Developments 4. Results Practical Aspects in a Clinical Setting 4.2. Representative Images 5. Conclusions References Modern Optical Methods for the Storage of Radiographs U. Killat 1. Introduction Minification Systems The Delcomat System 2.2. The LogEtronics System 2.3. Experience with Minification Systems 2.4. Physical Limits for Minification Systems 2.5. Conclusion Storage of Radiographs: The Information Theory Approach 3.1. Information Capacity of Radiographs Information Capacity of Radiographs: Example 3.3. Information Content, Information Capacity, and Image Quality

12 Contents xiii 4. Holographic Storage Description of the Holographic Method Concept of a Holographic Storage System Image Quality in the Holographic Recording of Radiographs The Bottlenecks of Holographic Image Storage Digital Storage of Radiographs Description of the Method Picture Input Devices Picture Output Devices Source Coding of Radiographs Optical Disk Store Towards Future Hospital Communication Systems 370 References Index 377

Progress In Medical Radiation Physics. Volume 1

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