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1 7.2 Central Nervous System 1

2 I. Anatomy of the nervous system A. The CNS controls & coordinates the body by: 1. monitoring activities of the body 2. communicating & exchanging information between parts of the body 3. acting as a control center to gather, store, integrate, and recall information 4. working closely with the endocrine system in maintaining homeostasis B. The Central Nervous System is divided into two parts 1. Brain 2. Spinal cord 2

3 C. The Meninges - Three layers of tissue that protect & nourish the brain & spinal cord 1. Dura Mater - outermost; very tough, white, fibrous connective tissue. (Epidural space - space outside of dura mater with lots of blood vessels.) 2. Arachnoid - middle; network of fibers that forms a web-like structure. a. Subarachnoid space - space under the arachnoid that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid; protects against mechanical injury by acting as a shock absorber. b. Cerebrospinal fluid - fluid in & around the surfaces of the CNS; nourishes the tissue, and acts as a shock absorber; aids in diagnosis of various diseases of the CNS. 3. Pia Mater - inner; very delicate & contains many blood vessels to nourish the cells of the brain & spinal cord. 3

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5 II. The Spinal Cord A. Location 1. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and emerges from the foramen magnum. 2. It extends downward through the spinal canal and ends at L-1 or L-2 of the vertebral column. 3. At its termination it branches into many smaller nerves called Cauda Equina (horse s tail). 4. The spinal cord is protected from mechanical injury by the vertebrae. 5

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7 B. Structure 1. A cross-section of the spinal cord reveals white matter surrounding an H-shaped central portion. 2. The 4 projections of gray matter are called the Anterior Horns and Posterior Horns. 3. The horns give rise to nerve roots at various intervals, which in turn give rise to the spinal nerves (31 pairs) which connect to the various parts of the PNS. 4. The posterior roots bring sensory (afferent) nerves; the anterior roots carry motor (efferent) nerves. 5. The crossbar of the gray matter is the Gray Commissure, which connects the left & right sides. 6. In the center of the gray commisure is a small hole, which runs the length of the spinal cord. Called the central canal. Contains CSF, which circulates in/out to provide Oxygen and nutrients. 7. The white matter is organized into 3 columns. These contain mylenated nerves to speed up the conduction of impulses up & down the spinal cord. a. Anterior white column, Posterior white column, & Lateral white columns b. Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses toward the brain; descending tracts carry motor impulses from the brain to various effectors. 7

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9 C. Functions of the spinal cord 1. Conduction of nerve impulses up & down its length. 2. Acts as a center for spinal reflexes. 9

10 D. The Reflex Arc 1.A reflex is an autonomic, unconscious response to a change in the environment. It helps to maintain homeostasis. 2.Heart rate, breathing rate, digestion, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and vomiting are all reflexes. 3.Five parts of a reflex: a.starts at the receptor, which is stimulated by a change in the environment. b.this sends an impulse down a sensory neuron toward the spinal cord. c.the impulse comes into the spinal cord along a dorsal root and connects to an associative neuron where information processing occurs. d.after selection of the appropriate response, specific motor neurons are activated and carry the signal out of the ventral root. e.the response impulse will eventually activate effectors (such as a gland or muscle) thus countering the original stimulus. 4.The reflex is a form of protection so that, instead of a sensory impulse traveling all the way to the brain and back down to cause an effect, it is done automatically thus make the response time much faster. 5.Innate reflexes are the simplest reflexes which people are usually born with (suckling, chewing, pain withdrawal); Acquired reflexes are learned responses (driving a car, catching a ball). 10

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12 III. The Brain A. The brain is divided into three major regions. 1. Cerebrum - largest portion of the brain; contains centers for sensory & motor functions; responsible for higher mental functions such as memory & reasoning. 2. Cerebellum - coordinates voluntary movements. 3. Brainstem - (Medulla Oblongata, Pons, Diencephalon, & Midbrain) interconnects various parts of the nervous system & regulates various activities. 12

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15 B. The Cerebrum 1. Divided into cerebral hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure. A bridge called the Corpus Callosum connects the hemispheres. 2. On the surface there are ridges (Gyri) and grooves (Sulci). The gyri & sulci increase the surface area thus accommodating a greater number of neurons. 15

16 3. Lobes of the Cerebrum: the cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes named for the cranial bones, which overlay them. a. Frontal lobe 1) motor area - control movements of the voluntary muscles. 2) associative area - concentration, judgement, planning, complex problem solving, & consequences of behavior. b. Parietal lobe 1) sensory area - centers for touch, temperature, pressure, & pain of skin. 2) associative area - speech, using words to express thoughts and feelings. c. Temporal lobe 1) sensory area - hearing 2) associative area - interpretation of sensory experiences, memory of visual senses, music, complex sensory patterns. d. Occipital lobe 1) sensory area - vision 2) associative area - combining visual images with other sensory experiences 16

17 4. The Cerebral Cortex is a thin layer of gray matter that covers the bulk of the cerebrum. Most of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. 5. Functions of the cerebrum a. interpretation of sensory impulses b. initiate voluntary muscle contractions c. stores information for memory & utilize this data for reasoning d. determines a person s intelligence and personality 17

18 C. The Cerebellum 1. The Transverse Fissure separates the cerebrum & cerebellum. 2. The Falx Cerebelli divides the cerebellum into two hemispheres. 3. It is composed mostly of white matter, but like the cerebrum, it has a thin layer of gray matter covering the outer surface called the Cerebellur Cortex. 4. The arrangement if gray & white matter resembles a tree and thus is called the Arbor Vitae (Tree of Life). 5. Function of the cerebellum - reflex center for coordination of voluntary & involuntary movements. 18

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20 D. The Brainstem - connects the brain to the spinal cord; coordinates & integrates information between the brain and spinal cord. 1.The Pons - large bulge at the top of the brainstem a. contains nerve tracts which connect the cerebrum & cerebellum. b. contains part of the respiratory center. 2. The Medulla Oblongata - has the same make-up as the spinal cord: white matter surrounding an H-shaped gray matter center. a. lowest portion of the brain b. connects the brain to the spinal cord c. Crossing Over- the phenomenon where the left side of the brain controls the rt. side of the body & vice versa. d. Functions 1) controls heart rate 2) controls blood pressure (vasomotor center) 3) controls respiratory rate (with the pons) 20

21 3. The Midbrain (Mesencephalon) - shortest portion of the brain located between the pons and diencephalon a. contains mostly white matter in the form of great fiber tracts b. connects the cerebrum & diencephalon with the cerebellum, medulla & spinal cord 4. The Diencephalon (Interbrain) - located near the center of the brain it contains the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pineal gland, & Limbic system. a. Thalamus - central relay for all senses (except smell). b. Pineal gland - endocrine structure which secretes melatonin; thought to control melanin production and circadian rhythm (periods of wakefulness & sleep). c. Limbic system - involved with emotional states and behavioral drives; works with our hypothalamus to determine our state of mind. d. Hypothalamus - regulates homeostasis by serving as a link between the nervous & endocrine systems. Functions include: 1) regulate heart & blood pressure 2) regulate body temperature 3) regulate water & electrolyte balance 4) controls emotions & behavioral drives (hunger, thirst, rage, pleasure, etc.) 5) controls the secretion of hormones 6) coordinates activities of the nervous & endocrine systems 21

22 e. Cranial Nerves Name Type Effect I. Olfactory sensory smell II. Optic sensory vision III. Oculomotor motor focus, pupil, eyelids IV. Trochlear motor move eyes V. Trigeminal mixed tears, move eyes, senses forehead VI. Abducens motor move eyes VII. Facial mixed taste, facial expressions VIII. Auditory sensory hearing, equilibrium IX. Glossopharyngeal mixed swallowing, salivary glands X. Vagus mixed various thoracic organs XI. Spinal accessory motor muscles of the neck & back XII. Hypoglossal motor move tongue 22

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24 F. The Ventricles 1. The ventricles are a series of interconnected, hollow chambers inside the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. 2. The largest cavities are called the Lateral Ventricles (a.k.a. the I & II ventricles) and are located within each cerebral hemisphere. 3. The Third Ventricle is located in the center of the diencephalon (interbrain) and is connected to the lateral ventricles. 4. The Fourth Ventricle is located posterior to the pons & medulla. It is connected to the 3 rd ventricle via the Mesencephalic (cerebral) Aqueduct. 5. The 4 th ventricle narrows at the bottom & becomes continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. It also communicates with the subarachnoid space. 24

25 IV. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - part of the nervous system that functions without conscious effort. Two parts: A. Sympathetic Division - active in times of stress; produces the fight or flight response. B. Parasympathetic Division - active under ordinary conditions. 25

26 V. The Electroencephalograph - machine used to measure & record electrical activities of the brain. A. Used to diagnose many types of brain dysfunction. B. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - printed record of electrical activity. C. Brain waves are different patterns of electrical activity. 1. alpha - resting, awake adults 2. beta - two types a. beta 1 - REM sleep b. beta 2 - stress or psychological tension 3. theta - in normal children & in frustrated or emotional stressed adults 4. delta - in infants, in deep sleep, or in damaged, diseased brains 26

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28 VI. Disorders of the CNS A. Cerebral palsy - nonprogressive, incurable disorder that affects voluntary motor control. 1. Caused by brain trauma during latter fetal development, at birth or early infancy B. Epilepsy - seizures or uncontrollable muscle contractions with or without the loss of consciousness. 1. Due to sudden electrical activity (or storms) in the brain 2. Two types a. petit mal (5-20 sec.) sever twitch-like contractions b. grand mal (20 sec. - 5 min.) person falls down unconscious, the entire body stiffens, and than the body jerks uncontrollably. After the seizure, the person may be dazed & confused, and the person will be very tired and sore. 3. First Aid: do NOT restrain the person or try to move them unless they are in danger. 4. Treatment with barbiturates or anticonvulsant drugs or surgery in extreme cases. C. Parkinson s disease - progressive, incurable disorder of the basal ganglia of the cerebral cortex due to a lack of the neurotransmitter dopamine. 1) Causes increased muscle tension, stiffness & weakness which result in rigid posture, slow movements, and a shuffling, unbalanced walk. 2) Treatment with the drug Levodopa can help lessen the effects of the disease. 28

29 D. Cerebral apoplexy (Stroke) - tissue death of part of the brain due to a clot or hemorrhage within the brain. Stroke test: S.T.R. = Smile, Talk, Raise both arms E. Alzheimer s disease - progressive, incurable degeneration of the nerve cells. 29

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