From single studies to an EBM based assessment some central issues
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1 From single studies to an EBM based assessment some central issues Doug Altman Centre for Statistics in Medicine, Oxford, UK
2 Prognosis Prognosis commonly relates to the probability or risk of an individual developing a particular state of health (an outcome ) over a specific time period, based on his/her clinical and non-clinical profile 2
3 Predicted vs observed survival in 468 terminally ill hospice patients Christakis & Lamont BMJ
4 What sorts of prognostic research? Natural history of disease Investigation of prognostic importance of a particular marker Investigation of whether a marker predicts which patients are more likely to respond to a specific treatment ( predictive marker ) Simultaneous investigation of several factors to try to determine which are of prognostic importance Development of a prognostic model using clinical information and laboratory measurements Development of a signature using high dimensional data, e.g. DNA microarray 4
5 What sorts of prognostic research? Natural history of disease Investigation of prognostic importance of a particular marker Investigation of whether a marker predicts which patients are more likely to respond to a specific treatment ( predictive marker ) Simultaneous investigation of several factors to try to determine which are of prognostic importance Development of a prognostic model using clinical information and laboratory measurements Development of a signature using high dimensional data, e.g. DNA microarray ,000 5
6 What sorts of prognostic research? Natural history of disease Investigation of prognostic importance of a particular marker Investigation of whether a marker predicts which patients are more likely to respond to a specific treatment ( predictive marker ) Simultaneous investigation of several factors to try to determine which are of prognostic importance Development of a prognostic model using clinical information and laboratory measurements Development of a signature using high dimensional data, e.g. DNA microarray ,000 Single and multiple studies 6
7 Biomarkers (prognostic markers) in cancer Many markers have some prognostic potential As yet few markers have been demonstrated to be clinically useful oestrogen receptor (ER) status for breast cancer c-erbb-2 (Her-2) for breast cancer prostate specific antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer Fewer still have been shown to predict who will benefit from a particular treatment ER and tamoxifen for breast cancer Her-2 and herceptin for breast cancer 7
8 Prognostic importance of a single specific variable If this was easy by now we would know the prognostic importance of numerous markers that have been investigated for many cancers and other diseases We don t! 8
9 Frequent methodological shortcomings of published prognostic studies Design and data Poorly defined or unrepresentative cohort Imprecise measurements Unknown quality of tissue samples (when relevant) Missing data Unknown completeness of follow up Some important predictors may be unavailable Sample too small Analysis Unclear which variables have been adjusted for (and how) Data-dependent (biased) analysis e.g. data-derived cutpoint 9
10 Study Design Design should reflect standards used in randomised trials as far as possible Clearly defined inclusion and exclusion criteria Ideally a homogenous group (e.g. newly diagnosed) Measurements should be reproducible and performed blinded to clinical data and outcome Ideally, patient treatment should be either standardized or assigned by randomization Primary and secondary hypotheses should be clearly stated Follow up should be long enough and complete for (nearly) all patients 10
11 In practice Many (most?) studies are retrospective Few are protocol driven Studies are often small with unclear aims Many are exploratory but interpreted as confirmatory Many fail to address a key question: How much does the new factor add to the predictive ability of recognized prognostic factors? 11
12 p53 as a prognostic marker in bladder cancer 168 published studies with over 10,000 patients Interpretation: After 10 years of research, evidence is not sufficient to conclude whether changes in P53 act as markers of outcome in patients with bladder cancer. [Malats et al, Lancet Oncology 2005] 12
13 Publication bias Evidence is accumulating of publication bias in prognostic studies 13
14 TP53 as a prognostic factor for head and neck squamous cell cancer [Kyzas et al, JNCI 2005] Studies Random effects (patients) risk ratio (95% CI) Published and indexed 18 (1364) 1.27 (1.06 to 1.53) Published, not indexed 13 (1028) 1.13 (0.81 to 1.59) Retrieved 11 (996) 0.97 (0.72 to 1.29) 14
15 Bcl-2 Martin et al, BJC
16 What can be done better? Ideally need prospectively designed studies, possibly using high quality tissue banks More standardisation of laboratory methods Better methodological and data quality Replication (external validation) More cautious interpretation Better reporting quality 16
17 Aim of a prognostic model Primary goal should be identification of the model that (best?) predicts outcome for the relevant population (e.g. all stroke patients) needs to predict well enough to be clinically useful Statistical methods primarily focus on producing a model that (best?) fits the data from the available sample of patients A crucial difference! 17
18 Prognostic models Three major steps in multivariable prognostic research: Developing a prognostic model, Validating its performance in new individuals Studying its clinical impact 18
19 Examples Nottingham prognostic index (breast cancer mortality) Index = 0.2 x tumour size (cm) + stage (coded 1 to 3) + grade (coded 1 to 3) MELD (liver transplant) log creatinine log bilirubin log INR (with adjustments for diagnosis) The predicted probability of an event is 1/[1 + exp( risk score)] 19
20 Decisions to make (assuming suitable data are available) Select a set of clinically relevant candidate predictors for possible inclusion in the model Evaluate data quality and decide strategy for missing data Choose a strategy for selecting the important variables in the final model Full model, variable selection? Decide how to model continuous variables Select measure(s) of model performance or predictive accuracy 20
21 Assumptions Sample is representative of all patients for whom the resulting model will be used No important predictors are missing Predictors are measured without error Any missing data are missing at random (explanatory variables or loss to follow up) Effect of each predictor is additive on the modelling scale (no interaction) Effect of continuous predictors is modelled correctly 21
22 How well can we predict? Goal should be prediction for future data not maximal fit to the primary data Should distinguish between failure to predict through poor model and through inherent noise Even if we model the data as well as possible we may still not be able to predict well we may distinguish groups with varying outcome we may not be able to make useful predictions for individuals 22
23 Validating a model A prognostic model is valuable only with evidence that it performs well for patients not used to develop the model preferably using data from elsewhere. Unvalidated models should not be used in clinical practice When validating a prognostic model, calibration and discrimination should be evaluated A model may not perform well in practice because of deficiencies in the methods used to derive the model or because the new sample is too different from the development sample 23
24 Design of a validation study Hierarchy of increasingly stringent strategies: Internal : procedures restricted to a single data set data splitting (random?) bootstrap/cross-validation Temporal : evaluation on a second data set from the same centre(s) internal but prospective External : evaluation on data from one or more other centres, perhaps by different investigators prospective or retrospective 24
25 Predicted and observed mortality by EuroSCORE risk level for Australian patients undergoing CABG EuroSCORE Patients (deaths) Observed mortality (95% CI) Predicted mortality (95% CI) 0-2 (low risk) 1955 (8) 0.41% (0.18 to 0.80) 1.03% (0.99 to 1.06) 3-5 (medium risk) 1996 (17) 0.85% (0.50 to 1.36) 3.90% (3.87 to 3.94) 6+ (high risk) 1641 (87) 5.30% (4.27 to 6.50) 8.52% (8.39 to 8.65) Total 5592 (112) 2.00% (1.65 to 2.40) 4.25% (4.16 to 4.34) 25
26 Application When a prognostic model performs less well in a new population, can modify the model using the new data, rather than developing a complete new model Impact studies quantify the benefit of using a prognostic model on physicians behaviour, patient outcome or cost-effectiveness of care 26
27 The main limitations of microarray prognostic signatures are known: instability of gene lists, overoptimistic performance indicators and inadequate validation. Microarray-based prognostic tests are irremediably moving to the clinics, but their clinical utility might never be formally established. 27
28 Systematic reviews Systematic reviews and (perhaps) meta-analysis are preferred to get the most reliable evidence Single markers Prognostic models Microarray studies 28
29 Systematic review of prognostic models in breast cancer 61 published models Poor methods and reporting were common Apart from one very small study, only the Nottingham index had been externally validated by independent researchers Williams et al, HTA
30 Review of multivariate analyses of survival from melanoma [Volmer 1989] In spite of 54 studies using multivariate techniques, there remain uncertainties about which prognostic factors to use in melanoma and how well we can predict the course of this disease. To some degree we must blame the methods of these studies... They seldom published the coefficients of their models so that others could validate the results, and they almost never validated their models with their own test data. 30
31 PLoS Med
32 Final comments For all types of prognostic study, major problems arise from poor quality studies There is (as yet) no consensus on many aspects of how to design and analyse single or multiple prognostic studies Risk prediction scores are easy to produce, hard to validate, harder still to implement in clinical practice and evidence of impact on decision making or prognosis is nearly always lacking Unreasonable expectations of prognostic models are common 32
33 33
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