Environmental Health Criteria

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Marshall Cooper
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1 Environmental Health Criteria CONTENTS PREAMBLE...xi The WHO Environmental Health Criteria Programme...xi Electromagnetic Fields...xi Scope...xii Procedures...xiii Extremely Low Frequency Environmental Health Criteria...xiv Participants in the WHO Expert Working Groups...xv Acknowledgements...xx Abbreviations...xxi 1 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Summary Sources, measurements and exposures Electric and magnetic fields inside the body Biophysical mechanisms Neurobehaviour Neuroendocrine system Neurodegenerative disorders Cardiovascular disorders Immunology and haematology Reproduction and development Cancer Health risk assessment Protective measures Recommendations for research Sources, measurements and exposures Dosimetry Biophysical mechanisms Neurobehaviour Neuroendocrine system Neurodegenerative disorders Cardiovascular disorders Immunology and haematology Reproduction and development Cancer Protective measures SOURCES, MEASUREMENTS AND EXPOSURES Electric and magnetic fields The field concept Quantities and units Polarization Time variation, harmonics and transients Perturbations to fields, shielding...24 iii

2 2.2 Sources of alternating fields Electric fields Naturally occurring fields Artificial fields Magnetic fields Naturally occurring fields Artificial fields Assessment of exposure General considerations Assessing residential exposure to magnetic fields: methods not involving measurement Distance Wire code Calculated historical fields Assessing residential exposure to magnetic fields using measurements Spot measurements in the home Longer-term measurements in homes Personal exposure monitoring Assessing exposure to magnetic fields from appliances Assessing exposure at schools Assessing non-occupational exposure to magnetic fields: discussion Assessing occupational exposure to magnetic fields Assessing exposure to electric fields Exposure assessment: conclusions ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS INSIDE THE BODY Introduction Models of human and animal bodies Electric field dosimetry Basic interaction mechanisms Measurements Computations Comparison of computations with measurements Magnetic field dosimetry Basic interaction mechanisms Computations uniform field Computations non-uniform fields Computations inter-laboratory comparison and model effects Contact current Comparison of various exposures Microscopic dosimetry Conclusions BIOPHYSICAL MECHANISMS Introduction The concept of plausibility iv

3 4.3 Stochastic effects, thresholds and dose-response relationships Induced currents and fields Currents induced by fields Comparison with noise Myelinated nerve fibre stimulation thresholds Neural networks and signal detection Transients Heating effects of induced currents Summary on induced currents Other direct effects of fields Ionization and breaking of bonds Forces on charged particles Forces on magnetic particles Free radicals Effects with narrow bandwidths Cyclotron resonance Larmor precession Quantum mechanical resonance phenomena Stochastic resonance Indirect effects of fields Surface charge and microshocks Contact currents Deflection of cosmic rays Effects on airborne pollutants Production of corona ions Inhalation of pollutant particles Deposition under power lines Implications for health Conclusions NEUROBEHAVIOUR Electrophysiological considerations Volunteer studies Surface electric charge Nerve stimulation Retinal function Brain electrical activity Sleep Cognitive effects Hypersensitivity Mood and alertness Epidemiological studies Depression Suicide Animal studies Perception and field detection Arousal and aversion Brain electrical activity v

4 5.4.4 Neurotransmitter function Cognitive function Conclusions NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM Volunteer studies The pineal hormone: melatonin Laboratory studies Residential and occupational studies Pituitary and other hormones Animal studies Melatonin Laboratory rodents Seasonal breeders Non human primates The pituitary and other hormones Pituitary-adrenal effects Other endocrine studies In vitro studies Effects on melatonin production in vitro Effects on the action of melatonin in vitro Conclusions NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS Alzheimer disease Pathology Epidemiology Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Pathology Epidemiology Parkinson disease, Multiple Sclerosis Pathology Epidemiology Discussion Conclusions CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS Acute effects Electrocardiogram changes, heart rate, and heart rate variability Blood pressure Long-term effects Discussion Heart rate variability hypothesis Epidemiologic evidence Conclusions IMMUNE SYSTEM AND HAEMATOLOGY Immune system Human studies vi

5 9.1.2 Animal studies Cellular studies Haematological system Human studies Animal studies Cellular studies Conclusions REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT Epidemiology Maternal exposure Video display terminals Electrically heated beds Other residential and occupational exposure Paternal exposure Effects on laboratory mammals Electric fields Magnetic fields Effects on prenatal development Multi-generation studies Effects on mammalian embryos in vitro Effects of paternal exposure Effects on non-mammalian species Bird embryos Development Interaction with known teratogens Other non-mammalian species Conclusion CANCER IARC 2002 evaluation: summary Epidemiological studies Childhood leukaemia Epidemiology Trends and ecologic correlations New data Evaluating epidemiological evidence: possible explanations Adult cancer Breast cancer Leukaemia and brain cancer Other cancers Epidemiology: conclusions Carcinogenesis in laboratory animals Rodent bioassays Large scale, life-time studies Leukaemia/lymphoma Brain tumours EMF exposure combined with carcinogens vii

6 Liver pre-neoplastic lesions Leukaemia/lymphoma Mammary tumours Skin tumours Brain tumours Transplanted tumours Genotoxicity in animals Non-genotoxic studies Animal studies: conclusions In vitro carcinogenesis studies Genotoxic effects Genotoxic effects of ELF magnetic fields alone Combined genotoxic effects Expression of oncogenes and cancer-related genes Differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis Gap junction intercellular communications Free radicals In vitro conclusions Overall conclusions HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT Introduction Hazard identification Biological versus adverse health effects Acute effects Chronic effects Exposure assessment Residential exposures Occupational exposures Exposure-response assessment Threshold levels Epidemiological methods Risk characterization Acute effects Chronic effects Uncertainties in the risk characterization Biophysical mechanisms Exposure metric Epidemiology Conclusions PROTECTIVE MEASURES Introduction General issues in health policy Dealing with environmental health risks Factors affecting health policy Scientific input Emission and exposure standards Risk in perspective viii

7 13.4 Precautionary-based policy approaches Existing precautionary ELF policies Cost and feasibility Discussion and recommendations Recommendations APPENDIX: Quantitative risk assessment for childhood leukaemia.374 A.1 Exposure distribution A.2 Exposure-response analysis using attributable fraction estimates for EMF and childhood leukaemia A.3 Risk characterization REFERENCES GLOSSARY RESUME ET RECOMMANDATIONS RELATIVES AUX ETUDES A MENER Résumé Sources, mesurage et expositions Champs électriques et magnétiques dans l organisme Mécanismes biophysiques Neurocomportement Système neuroendocrinien Troubles neurodégénératifs Troubles cardio-vasculaires Immunologie et hématologie Reproduction et développement Cancer Evaluation du risque pour la santé Mesures de protection Recommandations en matière de recherche Sources, mesurage et expositions Dosimétrie Mécanismes biophysiques Neuro-comportement Système neuroendocrinien Troubles neurodégénératifs Troubles cardio-vasculaires Immunologie et hématologie Reproduction et développement Cancer Mesures de protection E , ix

8 , RESUMEN Y RECOMENDACIONES PARA ESTUDIOS POSTERIORES Resumen Fuentes, mediciones y exposiciones Campos eléctricos y magnéticos dentro del cuerpo Mecanismos biofísicos Neurocomportamiento Sistema neuroendocrino Trastomnos neurodegenerativos Trastornos cardiovasculares Inmunología y hematología Reproducción y desarrollo Cáncer Evaluación de los riesgos de salud Medidas de protección Recomendaciones para la investigación Fuentes, mediciones y exposiciones Dosimetría Mecanismos biofísicos Neurocomportamiento Sistema neuroendocrino Trastornos neurodegenerativos Trastornos cardiovasculares Inmunología y hematología Reproducción y desarrollo Cáncer Medidas de protección x

5. Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation

5. Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation 5.1 Exposure data Static electric and magnetic fields arise from both natural and man-made sources, whereas electric and magnetic fields in the extremely low-frequency