Chapter 12. The Cell Cycle

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1 Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle

2 The Key Roles of Cell Division The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind is the one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from nonliving things. The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division. The division of one prokaryotic cell reproduces an entire organism. Cell division also enables multicellular eukaryotes to develop from a single cell. (fertilized egg) Cell division also functions in renewal and repair, replacing cells that die from normal wear and tear or accidents. the cell division process is an integral part of the cell cycle cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells

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4 Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material A cell's endowment of DNA, its genetic information is called its genome. Although a prokaryotic genome is often a single DNA molecule, eukaryotic genomes usually consist of a number of DNA molecules. The overall length of DNA in a eukaryotic cell is enormous. --the DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes Cells duplicate their genetic material before they divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an

5 Eukaryotic Chromosomes

6 Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division In animals somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes and gametes have one set of chromosomes human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes and gametes have 23 chromosomes

7 Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division In preparation for cell division DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate during cell division Each sister chromatid has a centromere, a region containing specific DNA sequences where the chromatid is attached most closely to its sister chromatid.

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10 Eukaryotic cell division consists of two parts Mitosis, the division of the nucleus cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm Cytokinesis usually occurs immediately after Mitosis In meiosis sex cells are produced after a reduction in chromosome number. Meiosis in humans occurs only in the gonads (ovaries and testes).

11 Phases of the Cell Cycle The cell cycle consists of two phases: the mitotic phase interphase The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle. Interphase can be divided into subphases: G1 phase S phase G2 phase

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13 Mitosis The mitotic phase is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis. Interphase: duplication of genetic material, ends with visible chromosomes Mitosis is conventionally broken down into five stages: Prophase: chromatin coils and condenses into chromosomes; mitotic spindle forms from MTOC s; nucleoli disappear Prometaphase: nuclear membrane dissolves; spindle microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochores Metaphase: the spindle is completely formed; chromosomes align in single file with centromeres on metaphase plate Anaphase: the chromatids separate and migrate to spindle poles Telophase: reverse of prophase Cytokinesis: occurs after Mitosis

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15 The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis The spindle arises from the centrosomes and includes spindle microtubules and asters Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate

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17 In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell movement of the chromosomes is driven by addition or subtraction of protein subunits to the kinetochore end of spindle microtubules Nonkinetechore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell In telophase genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell

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19 Cytokinesis Cytokinesis differs in plants and animals in animals, a ring of microfilaments contracts around periphery of cell this forms a cleavage furrow that eventually divides the cytoplasm in plants, vesicles containing cell wall material collect on spindle equator the vesicles fuse from the inside out forming cell plate which gradually develops into a new cell wall between new cells membranes surrounding the vesicles fuse to form new parts of the plasma membranes

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21 Mitosis in a plant cell

22 Binary Fission Prokaryotes (bacteria) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission. Binary Fission means division in half refers to this process and to the asexual reproduction of singlecelled eukaryotes. In binary fission the bacterial chromosome replicates the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart

23 Bacterial cell division by binary fission

24 Cell cycle control system Molecules present in the cytoplasm regulate progress through the cell cycle The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock There are three major check points in cell cycle: -G1 of interphase G2 of interphase M phase

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26 The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received release of growth factor at each of these checkpoints allows cell cycle to continue

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28 The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin- Dependent Kinases Rhythmic fluctuations in the abundance and activity of cell cycle control molecules pace the sequential events of the cell cycle. Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle control cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) The activity of cyclins and Cdks fluctuates during the cell cycle

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30 Stop and Go Signs:Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints Both internal and external signals control the cell cycle checkpoints Growth factor, is a protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide

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32 The effect of an external physical factor on cell division is clearly seen in density-dependent inhibition. In density-dependent inhibition crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells exhibit anchorage dependence in which they must be attached to a substratum to divide

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34 movement of the cancer cells is mediated by either blood or lymph systems Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body s control mechanisms cancer cells do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition some do not show anchorage dependence Uncontrolled cell division forms tumors benign tumor-no metastasis malignant tumor-metastasize named for organ or tissue of origin A benign tumor becomes malignant when cancerous cells from the tumor mass spread to new sites and continue to proliferate

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36 COMMON TREATMENTS FOR CANCER Radiation disrupts normal processes of cell division cancer cells are more susceptible Chemotherapy disrupts cell division

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