8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells. 8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells
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1 8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells! Cell division is a highly orchestrated process! The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division.! The cell cycle can be broken down into different stages that reflect specific activities 8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells! The cell cycle consists of two stages, characterized as follows: 1. Interphase: duplication of cell contents G 1 (first gap) : growth, increase in cytoplasm S (synthesis portion) : duplication of chromosomes G 2 (second gap) : each chromosome now exist as duplicated sister chromosomes and the cell continues growth, and prepares for division 2. Mitotic phase: division Mitosis : separation of duplicate sister chromatids into two new nuclear regions (division of the nucleus) Cytokinesis : division of cytoplasm, creating two daughter cells 1
2 T PH I N T E R P H A S E Growth & increase in cytoplasm G 1 (first gap) S (DNA synthesis) MI O Cytokinesis M G 2 (second gap) T IC SE Chromosomes now exist as sister chromatids & cell prepares for division 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Interphase The cytoplasmic contents double, Chromosomes duplicate in the nucleus during the S phase, and A nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), is visible in the nucleus. A nucleolus is a site of ribosome assembly within the nucleus. Two centrosomes form: these are structures that will form a spindle apparatus 2
3 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Spindle apparatus Is a growing network of microtubules that is formed from a centriole within the centrosome. Centrosomes are thus sometimes called the Microtubule Organization Center (MTOC) Right before cell division, the centrosomes will move to opposite sides of the nucleus They will form a spindle apparatus whose purpose is to separate sister chromotids and pull them to opposite sides of the cell 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic 3
4 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Spindle apparatus 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic centrioles Spindle apparatus chromosomes centrioles 4
5 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Once the cell has gone through the G2 part of the interphase, it is ready for the actual cell division.! Mitosis itself progresses through a series of stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.! Cytokinesis, the final cell splitting, often overlaps telophase. This can be memorized a PPMAT 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! The organization and movement of the sister chromatids occurs via a mitotic spindle It is produced by centrosomes, structures in the cytoplasm that contain a pair of centrioles in animal cells and organize the microtubule arrangement of the mitotic spindle 5
6 INTERPHASE Prophase MITOSIS Prometaphase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Chromatin Early mitotic spindle Centrosome Fragments of the nuclear envelope Kinetochore Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Chromosome, Centromere consisting of two sister chromatids Spindle microtubules 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Prophase In the cytoplasm microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming the spindle. In the nucleus chromosomes coil and become compact and more visible nucleoli disappear. 6
7 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Prometaphase Spindle microtubules reach chromosomes, where they attach at kinetochores on the centromeres of sister chromatids and move chromosomes to the center of the cell through associated protein motors. Other microtubules meet those from the opposite poles. The nuclear envelope disappears. INTERPHASE Prophase MITOSIS Prometaphase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Chromatin Early mitotic spindle Centrosome Fragments of the nuclear envelope Kinetochore Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Chromosome, Centromere consisting of two sister chromatids Spindle microtubules 7
8 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Metaphase The mitotic spindle is fully formed. Chromosomes align at the cell equator. Kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the spindle. Figure 8.5_right Metaphase MITOSIS Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Metaphase plate Cleavage furrow Mitotic spindle Daughter chromosomes Nuclear envelope forming 8
9 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Anaphase Sister chromatids separate at the centromeres. Daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell as motor proteins move the chromosomes along the spindle microtubules and kinetochore microtubules shorten. The cell elongates due to lengthening of nonkinetochore microtubules. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! Telophase The cell continues to elongate. The nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole, establishing daughter nuclei. Chromatin uncoils and nucleoli reappear. The spindle disappears. 9
10 Figure 8.5_right Metaphase MITOSIS Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Metaphase plate Cleavage furrow Mitotic spindle Daughter chromosomes Nuclear envelope forming 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic! During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells.! The process of cytokinesis differs in animal and plant cells. 10
11 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells! In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs as 1. a cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of microfilaments, interacting with myosin, and 2. the cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents into two cells. Figure 8.6A Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of microfilaments Cleavage furrow Daughter cells 11
12 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells! In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs as 1. a cell plate forms in the middle, from vesicles containing cell wall material, 2. the cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing the contents into two cells, 3. each cell now possesses a plasma membrane and cell wall. Figure 8.6B 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells Cytokinesis New cell wall Cell wall of the parent cell Cell wall Plasma membrane Daughter nucleus Cell plate forming Vesicles containing cell wall material Cell plate Daughter cells 12
13 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells Anaphase Cell wall Metaphase Telophase Different stages of cell division within a plant 8.7 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division! The cells within an organism s body divide and develop at different rates.! Cell division is controlled by the presence of essential nutrients, growth factors, proteins that stimulate division, density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing, and anchorage dependence, the need for cells to be in contact with a solid surface to divide. 13
14 Figure 8.7A Cultured cells suspended in liquid The addition of growth factor Figure 8.7B Anchorage Single layer of cells: cell stop dividing Why would an organism need such control? Removal of cells: Cell start dividing again Restoration of single layer by cell division 14
15 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system! The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.! Checkpoints in the cell cycle can stop an event or signal an event to proceed. Similar to the control systems in an automated washing machine with different cycles 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system! There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle. 1. G 1 checkpoint allows entry into the S phase or causes the cell to leave the cycle, entering a nondividing G 0 phase. 2. G 2 checkpoint, and 3. M checkpoint.! Research on the control of the cell cycle is one of the hottest areas in biology today. 15
16 Figure 8.8A G 1 checkpoint G 0 G 1 S Control system M G 2 M checkpoint G 2 checkpoint 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! Cancer currently claims the lives of 20% of the people in the United States and other industrialized nations.! Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle.! Cancer cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of growth factors, spread to other tissues through the circulatory system, and grow without being inhibited by other cells. 16
17 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! A tumor is an abnormally growing mass of body cells. Benign tumors remain at the original site. Malignant tumors spread to other locations, called metastasis. Figure 8.9 Tumor Glandular tissue Lymph vessels Blood vessel Tumor in another part of the body Growth Invasion Metastasis 17
18 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they originate. Carcinomas arise in external or internal body coverings. Sarcomas arise in supportive and connective tissue. Leukemias and lymphomas arise from blood-forming tissues. Figure 8.8B Growth factor Plasma membrane EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Relay proteins Receptor protein G 1 checkpoint Signal transduction pathway G 1 M Control system S G 2 CYTOPLASM 18
19 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! Cancer treatments Localized tumors can be removed surgically and/or treated with concentrated beams of high-energy radiation. Chemotherapy is used for metastatic tumors Review: Mitosis provides for growth, cell replacement, and asexual reproduction! When the cell cycle operates normally, mitosis produces genetically identical cells for growth, replacement of damaged and lost cells, and asexual reproduction. Video: Hydra Budding 19
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