Chapter 10. Cellular Respiration Pearson Education Ltd
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1 Chapter 10 Cellular Respiration
2 Life Is Work a) Living cells require energy from outside sources b) Some animals, such as the giraffe, obtain energy by eating plants, and some animals feed on other organisms that eat plants
3 에너지와화학물질의순환 Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat Photosynthesis generates O 2 and organic molecules, which are used in cellular respiration Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to generate ATP, which powers work
4 Concept 10.1: Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic Fermentation ( 발효 ) is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O 2 Aerobic respiration ( 유산소호흡 ) consumes organic molecules and O 2 and yields ATP Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than O 2
5 Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP 산화환원반응의원리 Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)
6 The electron donor is called the reducing agent ( 예 : Na) The electron receptor is called the oxidizing agent ( 예 : Cl) Some redox reactions do not transfer electrons but change the electron sharing in covalent bonds An example is the reaction between methane and O 2 (See Figure 10.3) Fig. 10.3
7 Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular Respiration During cellular respiration - Glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced -Reducing agent : electron donor -? -Oxidizing agent : electron acceptor -?
8 Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD + and the Electron Transport Chain ( 단계적에너지수확과정 ) In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down in a series of steps Electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to NAD +, a coenzyme As an electron acceptor, NAD + functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD + ) represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
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10 NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain Fig Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction O 2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
11 The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate) The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose) Oxidative phosphorylatio n (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
12 Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO 2 and water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32 molecules of ATP Fig. 10.7
13 Concept 10.2: Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate Glycolysis ( splitting of sugar ) breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate Fig Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two major phases Energy investment phase Energy payoff phase Glycolysis occurs whether or not O 2 is present
14 Supplement Fig. 4-2 Simplified diagram of the three stages of cellular metabolism that lead from food to waste products in animal cells Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
15 Outline of Glycolysis Fig. 4-3 Supplement Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
16 Figure 9.9a GLYCOLYSIS: Energy Investment Phase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) Glucose ATP Glucose 6-phosphate ADP Hexokinase 1 2 Fructose 6-phosphate ATP ADP Phosphoglucoisomerase Phosphofructokinase 3 Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Aldolase 4 Isomerase 5 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) GLYCOLYSIS: Energy Payoff Phase 2 NADH 2 NAD H ADP ATP 2 H 2 O ADP ATP 2 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) Triose phosphate 2 dehydrogenase Phosphoglycerokinase Phosphoglyceromutase Enolase 9 Pyruvate kinase 6 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate 2-Phosphoglycerate 10 Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Pyruvate
17 Ref: Essential cell biology 2015 edited Pearson by Education Alberts Ltd et al. Supplement
18 Ref: Essential cell biology 2015 edited Pearson by Education Alberts Ltd et al. Supplement
19 Beginning the energy generation phase at step 6 Supplement Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
20 Creation of high-energy enol phosphate linkage at step 9 Supplement Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
21 Concept 10.3: After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules The general pathway for the production of acetyl CoA from sugars and fats Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al. Fig. 4-4 In the presence of O 2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (in eukaryotic cells) where the oxidation of glucose is completed Citric cycle occurs in the mitochondrion matrix
22 Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle (One pyruvate can produce 1 NADH, 1 CO 2 during glycolysis) Fig This step is carried out by a multienzyme complex that catalyses three reactions
23 The Citric Acid Cycle a) The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle, completes the break down of pyruvate to CO 2 b) The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH 2 per turn
24
25 In plants, the chloroplasts and mitochondria collaborate to supply cells with metabolites and ATP Supplement Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al. Collaboration Fig. 4-16
26 Concept 10.4: During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH and FADH 2 account for most of the energy extracted from food These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
27 The Pathway of Electron Transport The electron transport chain is in the cristae of the mitochondrion Most of the chain s components are proteins, which exist in multiprotein complexes The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O 2, forming H 2 O Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH 2 to the electron transport chain Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including cytochromes (each with an iron atom) to O 2 The electron transport chain generates no ATP The chain s function is to break the large free-energy drop from food to O 2 into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts
28 At the end of the chain (1 분자의산소를환원시키는데 2 NADH 가필요 ) :Electrons are passed to oxygen, forming water Fig : Free-energy change during electron transport FADH2 는 NADH 보다낮은에너지준위를가져전자를복합체 II 에서전달함. 따라서전자전달계는 ATP 합성을위해약 1/3 정도적은에너지공급 How to generate ATP from electron energy? Chemiosmosis by ATP synthase located at the inner membrane
29 a) Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH 2 to the electron transport chain b) Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including cytochromes (each with an iron atom) to O 2 c) The electron transport chain generates no ATP directly d) It breaks the large free-energy drop from food to O 2 into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts
30 Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H + from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space Fig H + then moves back across the membrane, passing through channels in ATP synthase ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H + to drive phosphorylation of ATP This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of energy in a H + gradient to drive cellular work
31 The energy stored in a H + gradient across a membrane couples the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis Fig The H + gradient is referred to as a protonmotive force, emphasizing its capacity to do work
32 Supplement The transfer of electrons via the three respiratory enzyme complexes Prosthetic groups : FMN, FeS : Heme b, c 1 FeS : Heme a, a 3, Cu + Q (ubiquinone or CoQ): only electron carrier not tightly bound to a protein Ref: Essential cell biology edited by Alberts et al.
33 An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence: glucose NADH electron transport chain proton-motive force ATP About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making about 32 ATP There are several reasons why the number of ATP is not known exactly
34 ATP yield per molecule of glucose at each stage of cellular respiration. Figure (1) One NADH: 10 H + 수송 2.5 ATP (4개 H + 당 1 ATP) (2) One FADH2 (or NADH from glycolysis: 미토콘드리아의막을통과하면서에너지를소모해서 FADH2와비슷한에너지준위를가지므로 ): 1.5 ATP 8 NADH X 2.5 ATP = 20 ATP 2 NADH X 2.5 ATP + 2 FADH2 X 1.5 ATP = 8 ATP OR 4 FADH2 X 1.5 ATP = 6 ATP
35 Why are the numbers (30 or 32 ATP) in Fig inexact? (1) No direct coupling of phosphorylation and the redox reactions (NADH 분자수와 ATP 분자수의비율이정수가아님 ): 1 개의 NADH 수송으로 10 개의 H + 저장가능하지만 1ATP 합성에는 3-4 개의 H + 가소모됨 (2) ATP yield varies slightly depending on the type of shuttle used to transport electrons from cytosol into the mitochondria: 뇌세포의경우미토콘드리아의내막을통과하면서에너지를소모해서 FADH 2 와비슷한에너지준위를가짐. 그러나간이나심장세포에서는에너지소모없이 NADH 가그대로전달전달계로수송됨 (3) The proton-motive forces generated by the redox reactions of respiration are used to drive other kinds of work : the mitochondrion s uptake of pyruvate from the cytosol
36 포도당에서 ATP 를생산할때에너지효율은? During cellular respiration, 32 ATP (maximum) can be made Oxidation of a mole of glucose: G= -686kcal/mole A mole of ATP: release of 7.3 kcal/mole Energy efficiency= (32X7.3=233)/686 = 0.34 (=34%) Most efficient Automobile: 25% energy efficiency
37 Concept 9.5: Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen Most cellular respiration requires O 2 to produce ATP Without O 2, the electron transport chain will cease to operate In that case, glycolysis couples with fermentation or anaerobic respiration to produce ATP Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport chain with a final electron acceptor other than O 2, for example sulfate (SO 4 2- ) in some marine bacteria Production of H 2 S rather than H 2 O as a by-product Fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP
38 Types of Fermentation ( 발효 ) Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD +, which can be reused by glycolysis 전자수용체로서유기산인 pyruvate ( 젖산발효 ) 나 acetaldehyde ( 알콜발효 ) 를사용함 Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation Figure 10.17
39 알콜발효 In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first releasing CO 2 Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking
40 젖산발효 In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO 2 Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O 2 is scarce ( 근육피로의원인은젖산축적이아니라 K+ 이온의증가일가능성이제기됨. 오히려젖산은근육활동촉진효과있음. 과량의젖산은간에서 Pyruvate 로전환된후간세포속의미토콘드리아에서세포호흡에재활용됨 )
41 Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration All use glycolysis (net ATP =2) to oxidize glucose and harvest chemical energy of food In all three, NAD + is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis The processes have different final electron acceptors: an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) in fermentation and O 2 in cellular respiration Cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
42 Oligate anaerobes vs facultative anaerobes ( 엄격한혐기성생물체와조건부의혐기성생물체 ) Oligate anaerobes 의경우는발효또는무산소호흡만을수행할수있음. 따라서유산소상태에서는생존불가능함 - 척추동물의뇌세포와같은경우는발효가아닌 pyruvate 의유산소호흡만가능함 효소나많은수의세균들은조건부혐기성생물체여서발효나호흡을상황에따라사용할수있음 ( 그림 참조 ). - 근육세포도일종의조건부혐기성세포라할수있음 Figure 10.18
43 Concept 9.6: Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways Gycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major intersections to various catabolic and anabolic pathways The Versatility of Catabolism Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into cellular respiration Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates Proteins must be digested to amino acids; amino groups can feed glycolysis or the citric acid cycle Fats are digested to glycerol (used in glycolysis) and fatty acids (used in generating acetyl CoA) Fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation and yield acetyl CoA An oxidized gram of fat produces more than twice as much ATP as an oxidized gram of carbohydrate
44 The catabolism of various molecules from food 과량의아미노산은 deamination 과정을통해암모니아가제거된후해당과정이나 Citric Acid cycle 의중간산물로투입가능함. 이과정때문에생기는부산물이암모니아, urea 등이다.
45 Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms Feedback inhibition is the most common mechanism for control If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration speeds up; when there is plenty of ATP, respiration slows down Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic pathway Control of cellular respiration
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