CHAPTER 3. Carbon & the Molecular Diversity of Life
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1 CHAPTER 3 Carbon & the Molecular Diversity of Life
2 Carbon: The Organic Element Compounds that are synthesized by cells and contain carbon are organic So what is inorganic? Why are carbon compounds so prevalent?
3 4 valence electron configuration completes shell by sharing 4 the 4 electron orbitals are shaped like teardrops this forms a 3-D tetrahedron
4 Hydrocarbons organic molecules consisting of only hydrogen and carbon The molecules chain of carbon atoms is called the carbon skeleton C-C-C-C- Ex: methane, ethane, propane Isomer compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure
5 3 types of isomers 1. structural covalent arrangements 2. geometric spatial arrangements 3. enantiomers mirror images
6 Functional Groups Fig. 3.5 p.43 - Attachments replace one or more of the H on the C skeleton & usually participate in chemical reactions - All are polar & therefore hydrophilic Hydroxyl Group H bonded to O (-OH or HO-) Known as alcohols
7 Carbonyl Group C double bonded to O (-CO) C=O Usually sugars w/hydroxyl groups Compounds are called aldehydes when CO is at the end of the chain Compounds are called ketones when CO is in the middle Chain must have at least 3 carbons if ketone
8 Carboxyl Group O double bonded to C which is also bonded to a hydroxyl group (-COOH) Forms carboxylic acids such as acetic acid in vinegar
9 Amino Group N bonded with 2 H (-NH 2 ) Forms compounds called amines The amino group acts like a base Amino acid combines an amino group with a carboxyl group
10 Sulfhydryl Group S bonded to H Compounds called thiols Helps stabilize proteins I had sulfur for breakfast!
11 Phosphate Group P bonded w/4 oxygen atoms (-OPO 3 ) Used in energy transfer Forms organic phosphates
12 Methyl Group C bonded to 3 H Methlyated compounds Works as a tag more so than a functional group
13 The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
14 Macromolecules Polymer a large molecule consisting of similar or identical subunits strung together Monomers - subunits
15 Making a Polymer Dehydration synthesis monomers linked together by the removal of water One monomer loses a hydroxyl (-OH), the other loses a hydrogen (H) One H 2 O molecule must be removed for every link in the chain of monomers p. 45
16 Breaking a Polymer Hydrolysis the reverse of dehydration synthesis (adding water) It breaks the molecule by using H 2 O
17 Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
18 Monosaccharides Simple sugars with a molecular formula in multiples of CH 2 O ex:c 6 H 12 O 6 Carbons in the chain each have an OH group bonded to them; except one which is bonded to form a carbonyl group
19 sugar is either an aldehyde or a ketone depending on the location of the carbonyl group (p. 46) this changes taste monosaccharides are major nutrients for cells
20 Disaccharides double sugars (2 monomers) 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage 1 monomer gives up a H from a hydroxyl group and the other gives up an entire hydroxyl group bond formed by dehydration synthesis ex: p. 47 (fig. 3.9)
21 Polysaccharides contain a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides linked together Storage polysaccharides are hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for the cell
22 2 Storage Types Starch in plants consists of many glucose molecules in a helical shape Glycogen in animals stored in the livers and muscles in a branched format
23 2 Structural Types - serve as building materials for structures protecting cells Cellulose the major component of the tough cell walls in plants (fiber for humans) - rod formation - enzymes that digest starch are unable to hydrolyze the linkages here (exception: cows & termites)
24 Chitin structural polysaccharides are used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons
25 Lipids (hydrophobic water fearing) Fats Phospholipid Waxes steroids
26 Fats - large molecules composed of glycerol and fatty acids Glycerol an alcohol w/3 carbons, each w/a hydroxyl group Fatty acids have long carbon chains (p. 49)
27 Fatty Acids -One end has a COOH head -Other end is a long hydrocarbon tail -Insoluble in water -can be linked to glycerol by dehydration synthesis -ester linkage bond
28 -triglyceride can be made this way 3 fatty acids and a gylcerol -vary in length and # & location of double bonds Vs.
29 Saturated no double bonds in the tail of the molecule (animal fats solid at room temperature), causes plaque build up in arteries (p.50) Transfats unsaturated fat that has been converted to saturated by adding hydrogen
30 Cells shrink and swell Unsaturated have one or more double bonds in the tail (plant fats liquid at room temperature) Major function of fats is energy storage (more than twice as much as sugar) Stored in adipose cells
31 Phospholipid Structurally related to fats in structure, but only have 2 fatty acids Third carbon of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group (p. 51) The major component of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer)
32 Waxes Have one fatty acid linked to an alcohol & are more hydrophobic than fats Used as water-resistant coatings on surfaces of fruits, leaves, and insects
33 Steroids Are lipids w/ a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings (p. 51) Cholesterol precursor from which most other steroids are made Are all steroids bad? No! Cancer treatments, poison ivy
34 Anabolic Steroids synthetic variants of testosterone, indiscriminate usage can cause liver damage, cancer, infertility, aggressive behavior and reduced sex drive Who uses anabolic steroids? You would be surprised!! Athletes of ALL types, body builders, people who want the perfect body, etc.
35 Proteins -structural, storage, enzyme (biological catalyst) -Made up of amino acids
36 Amino Acids (aa) Building blocks of proteins Consist of an asymmetric carbon bonded to 4 different covalent partners C (alpha carbon) bonds to a H, a carboxyl group and an amino group
37 Fourth bond is to a variable group (chemical group) called the R group or side chain There are 20 amino acids that make millions of different proteins p. 53
38 Polypeptide Chains 2 amino acids joined by dehydration synthesis by a peptide bond (p. 54) Polypeptide chain many aa s joined by peptide bonds
39 Protein Conformation A protein consists of one or more polypeptide chains twisted in a 3-D shape or conformation When a cell makes a polypeptide, the chain folds spontaneously into its conformation
40 Levels of Protein Structure (p ) Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
41 Primary protein s unique sequence of aa s (one aa change in hemoglobin causes sickle cell)
42 Secondary describes how the primary structure is folded into it s conformation *this results from H bonding between peptides *alpha helix (spring coil) or beta pleated sheet
43 Tertiary describes additional, less regular contortions of the molecule (its 3-D shape) -caused by hydrophobic interactions, H bonds, ionic bonds, etc. -Disulfide bridges reinforce conformation
44 Quaternary results from the relationship (bonding interactions) between subunits each polypeptide chain is a subunit Chaperonins protein molecules that help fold other proteins
45 Denaturation What is this? -when a protein unravels & loses its conformation What causes denaturation? - Changes in ph, salt [ ], temperature
46 Nucleic Acids Polynucleotides another name for nucleic acid, phosphodiester linkages (phosphate and sugar) join monomers RNA and DNA are made up of monomers called nucleotides contains 3 parts: nitrogenous base, a sugar, & a phosphate group (sugar-phosphate backbone)
47 RNA & DNA Ribonucleic acid Has the sugar ribose (pentose=5-c) Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, Cytosine Deoxyribonucleic acid Has the sugar deoxyribose (pentose=5-c) Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
48 The Double Helix -consists of 2 polynucleotide chains that spiral -Genes are specific stretches of DNA that program the aa sequences (primary structure) of proteins Who all played a part in discovering the double helix?
49
50 How do base pairings ALWAYS occur? Adenine Thymine Guanine - Cytosine
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