1. I can explain the structure of ATP and how it is used to store energy.
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1 1. I can explain the structure of ATP and how it is used to store energy. ATP is the primary energy molecule for the cell. It is produced in the mitochondria during cellular respiration, which breaks down glucose in the presence of oxygen. The energy is stored in chemical bonds. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is made of Adenine (nitrogen base), Ribose (sugar), and 3 phosphate groups. The phosphate groups are held together by high energy phosphate bonds (which are a strong covalent bond). When the phosphate bond is broken between the last two phosphates, energy is released. This reaction is called hydrolysis because a water molecule is split in order to remove the last phosphate. This new molecule made of Adenine, Ribose, and 2 phosphates is called ADP (adenosine diphosphate). ADP can be recycled through chemiosmosis (aka. oxidative phosphorylation; occurs during cellular respiration and photosynthesis). This process adds a phosphate group to the ADP molecule and stores energy to be used later. Add phosphate = Store energy in the chemical bond Remove phosphate = Releases energy in the chemical bond 2. I can explain the function of enzymes, including the enzyme-substrate complex. This means that I can explain the purpose of enzymes and the relationship between the shape and function of the enzyme. Enzymes are proteins that accelerate (speed up) chemical reactions by lowering the amount activation energy that is required to begin the reaction. Without enzymes, necessary cellular chemical reactions would occur too slowly in order to support life. Enzymes are often referred to as biological catalysts. A catalyst is anything that speeds up a chemical reaction (light, heat, motion, enzymes, etc.). Enzymes are highly specific; they only work in
2 certain reactions (1 Enzyme = 1 reaction). This is because enzymes work due to the shape. They must fit together with substrates (the reactants of the chemical reaction) in order to provide a place for the chemical reaction to occur and weaken the chemical bonds in the substrates. The enzyme and substrates fit together like puzzle pieces or a lock and key; this is called the enzyme-substrate complex. The place where the substrates fit into the enzyme is called the active site; this is where the chemical reaction occurs. The active site has a complementary shape to the substrates. As the chemical reaction occurs, the enzyme may temporarily change shape. After the reaction has occurred, the enzyme goes back to the original shape and may be used again. Enzymes are reusable as long as they maintain the correct shape. Anything that changes the shape of the enzyme (such as chemical inhibitors and environmental conditions) will affect how well the enzyme works. The enzymes will stop working when exposed to high temperatures or extreme/abnormal ph; these denature the enzyme, which means it permanently changes the enzyme s shape. Cold temperatures will lower the effectiveness of the enzyme temporarily because the atoms would naturally move slower. A chemical inhibitor will either take the place of the substrates or temporarily change the shape of the active site by bonding in a different location on the enzyme. Reaction without Enzyme requires MORE activation energy Reaction with Enzyme requires LESS activation energy 3. I can identify the structures that form the cell membrane and how they help maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is keeping an internal balance. The cell membrane is a selectively-permeable barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside of the cell; this means that it only allows certain substances to cross the membrane. The cell membrane maintains homeostasis by controlling what materials enter or leave the cell. This allows the cell to keep stable concentration levels of water and solutes within the cytoplasm.
3 Carbohydrates = allow cell identification Phospholipids = form majority of cell membrane, the semipermeable barrier around the cell; phospholipids are turned so that the tails point to the middle of the membrane. Cholesterol = adds stability and strength to the membrane Proteins = adds structure to the membrane and provides transport channels for facilitated diffusion or transport pumps for active transport cholesterol Cytoplasm Phospholipids have a phosphate head that is hydrophilic. These are always oriented to the outside of the membrane because the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid are both primarily made of water. Phospholipids have 2 hydrophobic fatty acid tails; one is an unsaturated fatty acid which allows mobility for the phospholipids. The membrane is referred to as fluidmosaic because the phospholipids are not fixed and are able to move fluidly. The membrane is also composed of many different parts which gives it a mosaic quality.
4 4. I can tell the difference between the types of cell transport. This means that I can identify and explain diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Particles must be able to pass through the cell membrane in order for cells to function. Particle transport can be categorized as Active Transport, which requires energy, and Passive Transport, which does not require energy. There are 3 basic types of passive transport: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Diffusion is the simplest form of transport and can happen with or without a membrane. Diffusion is where molecules naturally move from areas of higher concentrations (high density or crowded ) to areas of lower concentration (low density or uncrowded ). Small uncharged and nonpolar molecules such as (CO 2 & O 2 ) diffuse easily across the cell membrane. Diffusion does not require the cell to use energy because the molecules move with/down the concentration gradient. Molecules will stay in motion even after equilibrium has been reached, but the motion will be equal (there will be no net movement of substances in one direction). Low Concentration Equilibrium High Concentration Osmosis is the diffusion of water (H 2 O) across a semi-permeable membrane. Water molecules can pass through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane even though it is polar because they are very small. Through osmosis, water molecules from areas of higher water concentration to areas of lower water concentration with/down the concentration gradient. This does not require the input of energy. The area with less water will have a higher concentration of solutes; this type of solution is called hypertonic. When placed in a hypertonic solution, water will move out of the cell causing it to lose mass and shrivel. If a solution is hypotonic, it will have a higher concentration of water and lower concentration of solutes. A hypotonic solution will cause a cell to swell and possibly burst (ex: blood cell in pure water). An isotonic solution is one that has the same concentration as the cytoplasm of the cell.
5 Hypertonic Solution Hypotonic Solution Isotonic Solution Hypotonic Solution Hypertonic Solution Facilitated Diffusion is a type of passive transport where molecules that cannot pass through the lipid bilayer diffuse through specialized passages called Protein Channels or Carrier Proteins. These proteins facilitate, or help, diffusion occur because they allow large or polar molecules to move across the membrane from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. This does not require the cell to use energy because the molecules are moving with/down the concentration gradient.
6 Active Transport is where molecules move against/up the concentration gradient. This means that it requires energy to move the molecules from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This requires the use of specialized proteins in the cell membrane called Protein Pumps. The cell must release energy from ATP in order to move these molecules. An example of this is the Sodium-Potassium (Na + /K + ) Pump which is essential for neuron communication. Exocytosis = Export Endocytosis = Import Exocytosis occurs when the cell prepares to export a substance, such as proteins or waste. The material is packaged in a lipid membrane by the Golgi apparatus. The membrane then carries the substance to the cell/plasma membrane. This smaller membrane is called a vesicle. The vesicle then fuses with the cell membrane in order to release the substances into the extracellular environment (outside the cell). Endocytosis occurs when the cell ingests (imports) a substance from outside the cell. The cell membrane folds around the substance, such as food, liquid, or specific molecules, and forms a vesicle. The vesicle then transports the substance into the cytoplasm, often to the lysosome for digestion. There are 3 types of endocytosis:
7 Phagocytosis (importing large solid particles), Pinocytosis (importing fluid and dissolved particles), or Receptormediated Endocytosis (receptor proteins bind to specific molecules for import).
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