1 Development of Membrane Processes 1 K. Smith. 1.1 Historical background Basic principles of membrane separations 3

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1 1 Development of Membrane Processes 1 K. Smith 1.1 Historical background Basic principles of membrane separations Depth versus screen filters Isotropic versus anisotropic membranes Cross-flow filtration Requirements of membrane processes Types of membrane separations Reverse osmosis Nanofiltration Ultrafiltration Microfiltration Theory of membrane transport Transport models Reverse osmosis/nanofiltration membranes Ultrafiltration/microfiltration membranes Factors affecting membrane separations Factors affecting reverse osmosis/nanofiltration separations Factors affecting ultrafiltration/microfiltration separations System parameters General characteristics of membrane processes Retention and rejection Pore size Molecular weight cut-off Flux Concentration factor Membrane life Conclusion and future development 15 Suggested literature 15 2 Principles of Membrane Filtration 17

2 A. Hausmann, M.C. Duke and T. Demmer 2.1 Introduction and definitions Membrane processes Definitions of membrane processes Membrane properties based on materials Membrane structure Material properties Flux behaviour in pressure-driven membrane operations Modelling flux behaviour Influence of chemical potential on the reverse osmosis process Effects of feed characteristics and operating parameter on separation efficiency Effects of feed components Effects of operating parameters Cross-flow systems Background Single-pass versus feed-and-bleed operation Recent membrane processes following different operating principles Forward osmosis Osmotic distillation Membrane distillation Conclusions 47 References 47 3 Commercial Membrane Technology 52 K. Smith 3.1 Introduction: polymers used in membrane manufacture Cellulose acetate Polysulphone/polyethersulphone Polyamide Polyvinylidene fluoride Thin-film composites Other materials used for membranes 56

3 3.2.1 Ceramic membranes Metallic membranes Membrane configuration Spiral-wound Tubular Hollow fibre Plate and frame Modes of operation Diafiltration Batch design Continuous design Conclusion and future developments 71 Suggested literature 71 4 Membrane Fouling, Cleaning and Disinfection 73 L.L.A. Koh, M. Ashokkumar and S.E. Kentish 4.1 Introduction Flux reduction Membrane resistance Concentration polarisation Fouling Fouling in the beverage industry Fouling in the dairy industry Membrane cleaning and disinfection Cleaning methods Chemical cleaning factors Disinfection Cleaning procedures Chemical cleaning agents recovery and reuse Recent developments Conclusions 99

4 4.6 Nomenclature 100 References General Application for the Treatment of Effluent and Reuse of Wastewater 107 N.A. Milne and S.R. Gray 5.1 General wastewater quality issues General wastewater treatment Primary treatment: solids, fats, oils and grease removal Secondary treatment: biological treatment and the membrane bioreactor Tertiary treatment: disinfection Desalination: nanofiltration and reverse osmosis Water reuse Conclusions and future applications 123 References Liquid Milk Processing 128 G. Gesan-Guiziou 6.1 Introduction On-farm concentration of milk Protein standardisation by ultrafiltration Advantages of protein standardisation Regulatory aspects Process involved Removal of bacteria by microfiltration Microfiltration process: operating conditions and performances Industrial applications Fractionation of fat Removal of somatic cells by microfiltration Conclusions and future trends 140 References Membrane Processing of Fermented Milks 143 B. Ozer and A.Y. Tamime 7.1 Introduction Microflora of the starter cultures 144

5 7.3 Patterns of production and consumption Manufacturing practice of gel-type (set and stirred) products Mesophilic lactic fermentations Thermophilic lactic fermentations Yeast lactic fermentations Mould lactic fermentations Manufacturing practice of concentrated products Background Concentrated yoghurt Shrikhand and chakka Ymer Skyr Quality control Compositional quality Microbiological quality Organoleptic properties Conclusion 169 References Cheese 176 V.V. Mistry 8.1 Background Properties of membrane processed concentrates Buffering capacity Rheology of concentrated milks Rennet coagulation Applications of ultrafiltration in cheesemaking Protein standardisation Medium or intermediate concentrated retentates Liquid pre-cheeses concept Application of ultrafiltration for fresh and soft cheeses 184

6 8.4 Cheese quality Applications of microfiltration in cheesemaking Removal of bacteria Casein standardisation αs-/β-casein ratio adjustment by microfiltration Recovery of fat and brine Nanofiltration Milk protein concentrates Future potential 189 References Whey Processing 193 L. Ramchandran and T. Vasiljevic 9.1 Introduction Whey: components, their functionality and uses Problems of traditional whey processing Membranes in whey processing Microfiltration Ultrafiltration Diafiltration Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis Electrodialysis and other related processes Integrated processes Conclusions 204 References Concentrated Milk and Powders 208 G. Gesan-Guiziou 10.1 Introduction Concentrated milks and powders Background Production of concentrated whole milk and powder Production of concentrated skimmed milk and powder 211

7 Applications of reverse osmosis concentrated milks Dulce de Leche Milk protein concentrates Manufacture of milk protein concentrates Applications of milk protein concentrates Conclusion and future trends 222 References Further Applications of Membrane Filtration in Dairy Processing 225 J.A. O Mahony and J.J. Tuohy 11.1 Introduction Fractionation of milk proteins using membranes Separation of casein and whey proteins in milk Fractionation of individual casein proteins Fractionation of individual whey proteins Fractionation of milk protein hydrolysates Enrichment of osteopontin from milk/whey Production of microparticulated whey protein Isolation and enrichment of growth factors from milk/whey Fractionation of milk fat using membranes Isolation and enrichment of native milk fat globules Isolation and enrichment of milk fat globule membrane Removal of phospholipids from liquid whey Filter sterilisation of polyunsaturated fatty acids Fractionation of milk carbohydrates using membranes Isolation and purification of bovine milk oligosaccharides Filter sterilisation of lactase Lactic acid removal and purification Fractionation of milk salts using membranes Demineralisation using membranes Demineralisation using electrodialysis Conclusions and future trends 251

8 References Fruit Juices 262 A. Cassano 12.1 Introduction General Background Background to manufacturing practice Fruit juice clarification by microfiltration and ultrafiltration Microfiltration Ultrafiltration Selection of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes Membrane fouling and membrane cleaning Membrane fouling Methods of reducing membrane fouling Methods of fouling treatment Performance of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes Process configurations Quality of the clarified juices Integrated processes Conclusions and future development 277 References Beer and Cider 281 J. Bergin and J.J. Tuohy 13.1 Introduction Beer brewing process Milling Mashing Wort separation Boiling Trub separation Fermentation Clarification 289

9 Beer make-up Packaging and microbiological stabilisation Cidermaking process Juice extraction and formulation Fermentation Racking and maturation Blending, filtration and packaging Membrane applications in the brewing process Wort separation Beer filtration and stabilisation Membrane applications in cidermaking Background Cider clarification Membrane applications common to brewing and cidermaking Yeast separation and product recovery Microbiological stabilisation Gas standardisation using membranes Water recovery/cleaning-in-place systems Alcohol removal for non- or low-alcohol products and malt beverage production Future opportunities 311 References Wine 316 K. Grainger 14.1 Background Clarification and filtration methods Traditional methods in common use Membrane filtration Cross-flow microfiltration Membrane fouling Must correction, wine correction and alcohol reduction using membrane technologies 322

10 Reverse osmosis Ultrafiltration Wine correction: reducing alcohol content Wine correction: removing acetic acid Wine correction: removal of taints Wine stabilisation and ph adjustment Tartrate stabilisation ph adjustment Conclusions and future developments 328 References Application of Membrane Technology in Vinegar 334 F. Lopez 15.1 Introduction Process of vinegar making Membrane technology in the production of vinegar Conclusions 338 References 338

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