Cell Structure and Function

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1 C h a p t e r 3 Cell Structure and Function PowerPoint Lecture Slides prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College - North Harris

2 3-1 The study of cells provides the foundation for understanding human physiology

3 An Introduction to Cells Cell Theory Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals All cells come from the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

4 The Study of Cells Cytology Study of structure and function of cells Cytology depends on seeing cells Light microscopy (LM) Electron microscopy (EM) Scanning EM (SEM) Transmission EM (TEM)

5 The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body Figure 3-1

6 An Overview of Cell Anatomy A cell is surrounded by a watery medium known as the extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid) Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid Cytoplasm: Cytosol = liquid Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles

7 The Anatomy of a Model Cell Figure 3-2

8 3-2 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions

9 Plasma Membrane Functions of the Plasma Membrane Physical isolation: Barrier Regulation of exchange with the environment: Ions and nutrients enter Wastes are eliminated and cellular products are released Sensitivity to the environment: Extracellular fluid composition Chemical signals Structural support: Anchors cells and tissues

10 Membrane Lipids Double layer of phospholipid molecules Hydrophilic heads toward watery environment, both sides Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails inside membrane Barrier to ions and water soluble compounds

11 Membrane Proteins Integral Proteins Within the membrane Peripheral Proteins Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane

12

13 Membrane Carbohydrates Glycoproteins and glycolipids Extend outside cell membrane Form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx) Functions of the glycocalyx Lubrication and protection Anchoring and locomotion Specificity in binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response)

14 The Plasma Membrane Figure 3-3

15 3-3 Diffusion and filtration are passive transport mechanisms facilitating membrane passage

16 Membrane Transport The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but Nutrients must get in Products and wastes must get out Permeability determines what moves in and out of a cell, and a membrane that Lets nothing in or out is impermeable Lets anything pass is freely permeable Restricts movement is selectively permeable

17 Membrane Transport Plasma membrane is selectively permeable Allows some materials to move freely Restricts other materials Selective permeability restricts materials based on Size Electrical charge Molecular shape Lipid solubility Membrane Transport: Fat- and Water-Soluble Molecules

18 Membrane Transport Transport through a plasma membrane can be Active (requiring energy and ATP) Passive (no energy required) Diffusion (passive) Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active) Vesicular transport (active)

19 Diffusion Diffusion Molecules mix randomly Solute spreads through solvent Eliminates concentration gradient Solutes move down a concentration gradient Membrane Transport: Diffusion

20 Diffusion Figure 3-4

21 Diffusion Diffusion Across Plasma Membranes Can be simple or channel mediated: Materials that diffuse through plasma membrane by simple diffusion: lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, and steroids) dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) Materials that pass through transmembrane proteins (channels): are water-soluble compounds are ions

22 Diffusion Across the Plasma Membrane Figure 3-5

23 Diffusion Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane More solute molecules, lower concentration of water molecules Membrane must be freely permeable to water, selectively permeable to solutes Water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes Volume increases on the side with more solutes

24 Osmosis Figure 3 6

25 Diffusion Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion Osmotic pressure: Is the force of a concentration gradient of water Equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed to block osmosis

26 Diffusion Osmolarity and Tonicity The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell: Two fluids may have equal osmolarity but different tonicity Isotonic (iso- = same, tonos = tension): A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell Hypotonic (hypo- = below): Has less solutes and loses water through osmosis Hypertonic (hyper- = above): Has more solutes and gains water by osmosis

27 Diffusion Osmolarity and Tonicity A cell in a hypotonic solution: Gains water Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells) A cell in a hypertonic solution: Loses water Shrinks (crenation of red blood cells)

28 Effects of Osmosis Across Plasma Membranes Figure 3-7

29 Filtration Hydrostatic pressure pushes on water Water crosses membrane Solute follows water Filtration initiates urine formation

30 3-4 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport mechanisms also facilitate membrane passage

31 Carrier-Mediated Transport Carrier-mediated transport of ions and organic substrates Facilitated diffusion Active transport Characteristics Specificity: One transport protein, one set of substrates Saturation limits: Rate depends on transport proteins, not substrate Regulation: Cofactors such as hormones

32 Carrier-Mediated Transport Cotransport Two substances move in the same direction at the same time Countertransport One substance moves in while another moves out

33 Carrier-Mediated Transport Facilitated diffusion Passive Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids): Molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein Protein changes shape, molecules pass through Receptor site is specific to certain molecules Membrane Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

34 Facilitated Diffusion Figure 3-8

35 Carrier-Mediated Transport Active Transport Active transport proteins: Move substrates against concentration gradient Require energy, such as ATP Ion pumps move ions (Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ ) Exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same time Membrane Transport: Active Transport

36 Carrier-Mediated Transport Active Transport Sodium potassium exchange pump: Active transport, carrier mediated: sodium ions (Na + ) out, potassium ions (K + ) in 1 ATP moves 3 Na + and 2 K +

37 The Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump Figure 3-9

38 Vesicular Transport Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP: Receptor mediated Pinocytosis Phagocytosis Exocytosis (exo- = outside): Granules or droplets are released from the cell

39 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Figure 3-10

40 Phagocytosis and Exocytosis Figure 3-11

41

42 3-5 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform specific functions

43 Cytosol and Organelles All materials inside the cell and outside the nucleus Cytosol (fluid): Dissolved materials: nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat Organelles: Structures with specific functions

44 The Organelles Membranous Organelles Covered with plasma membrane Isolated from cytosol Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria Nonmembranous Organelles No membrane Direct contact with cytosol Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes

45 Organelles Nonmembranous Organelles The cytoskeleton structural proteins for shape and strength: Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules

46 The Cytoskeleton Figure 3-12

47 The Organelles The Cytoskeleton Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption Attach to cytoskeleton Centrioles in the centrosome: Centrioles form spindle apparatus during cell division Centrosome: cytoplasm surrounding centriole Cilia: Small hair-like extensions Cilia move fluids across the cell surface

48 The Organelles Ribosomes Build polypeptides in protein synthesis Two types: Free ribosomes in cytoplasm: manufacture proteins for cell Fixed ribosomes attached to ER: Proteasomes manufacture proteins for secretion Contain enzymes (proteases) Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

49 The Organelles Membranous Organelles Five types of membranous organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Peroxisomes Mitochondria

50 The Organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Functions: Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids Storage of synthesized molecules and materials Transport of materials within the ER Detoxification of drugs or toxins

51 The Organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): No ribosomes attached Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates: phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes) steroid hormones (reproductive system) glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells) glycogen (storage in muscles)

52 The Organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): Surface covered with ribosomes: active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis folds polypeptide protein structures encloses products in transport vesicles

53 The Endoplasmic Reticulum Figure 3-13

54 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face: Secretory vesicles: modify and package products for exocytosis Membrane renewal vesicles: add or remove membrane components Lysosomes: carry enzymes to cytosol Functions of the Golgi Apparatus

55 The Golgi Apparatus Figure 3-14

56 The Organelles Lysosomes Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles Functions of Lysosomes Clean up inside cells: Break down large molecules Attack bacteria Recycle damaged organelles Eject wastes by exocytosis Autolysis Auto- = self, lysis = break Self-destruction of damaged cells: lysosome membranes break down digestive enzymes are released cell decomposes cellular materials recycle

57 The Organelles Peroxisomes Are enzyme-containing vesicles: Break down fatty acids, organic compounds Produce hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) Replicate by division

58 The Organelles Mitochondria Have smooth outer membrane and inner membrane with numerous folds (cristae) Matrix: Fluid around cristae Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food (glucose): Produces energy molecule ATP

59 Mitochondria The Organelles Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration) Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP glucose + oxygen + ADP Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol) carbon dioxide + water + ATP Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle): pyruvic acid to CO 2 (in matrix) Electron transport chain inner mitochondrial membrane

60 Mitochondria Figure 3-15

61 3-6 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities

62 Nuclear Structure and Contents Nucleus Largest organelle The cell s control center Nuclear Envelope Double membrane around the nucleus Perinuclear Space Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope Nuclear Pores Communication passages

63 The Nucleus Figure 3-16

64 Nuclear Structure and Contents DNA All information to build and run organisms Nucleoplasm Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA Nucleoli Are related to protein production Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones Synthesize rrna and ribosomal subunits Chromatin Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing) Chromosomes Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing)

65 Chromosome Structure Figure 3-17

66 Information Storage in the Nucleus DNA Instructions for every protein in the body Gene DNA instructions for one protein Genetic Code The chemical language of DNA instructions: Sequence of bases (A, T, C, G) Triplet code: 3 bases = 1 amino acid

67

68

69 3-7 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function

70 Protein Synthesis The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis The nucleus contains chromosomes Chromosomes contain DNA DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins Proteins determine cell structure and function

71 Protein Synthesis Transcription Copies instructions from DNA to mrna (in nucleus) Translation Ribosome reads code from mrna (in cytoplasm) Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain Processing By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein

72 Transcription A gene is transcribed to mrna in three steps Gene activation DNA to mrna RNA processing Transcription and Translation

73 Transcription Figure 3-18

74 Protein Synthesis Translation mrna moves: From the nucleus through a nuclear pore mrna moves: To a ribosome in cytoplasm Surrounded by amino acids mrna binds to ribosomal subunits: trna delivers amino acids to mrna

75 Protein Synthesis Translation trna anticodon binds to mrna codon 1 mrna codon translates to 1 amino acid Enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds Polypeptide chain has specific sequence of amino acids At stop codon, components separate Protein Synthesis: Sequence of Amino Acids in the Newly Synthesized Polypeptide

76 Translation Figure 3-19

77 Translation Figure 3-19

78 Translation Figure 3-19

79

80 3-8 Stages of a cell s life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis

81 A Cell s Life Cycle Most of a cell s life is spent in a nondividing state (interphase) Body (somatic) cells divide in three stages DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly Mitosis divides genetic material equally Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into two daughter cells Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis

82 The Cell Life Cycle Figure 3-20

83 Interphase The Nondividing Period G 1 phase cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis S phase DNA replication and histone synthesis G 2 phase finishes protein synthesis and centriole replication

84 DNA Replication Figure 3-21

85 Mitosis Divides duplicated DNA into two sets of chromosomes DNA coils tightly into chromatids Chromatids connect at a centromere

86 Mitosis Prophase Centriole pairs move to cell poles Microtubules (spindle fibers) extend between centriole pairs Nuclear envelope disappears Metaphase Chromosomes align in a central plane (metaphase plate) Anaphase Microtubules pull chromosomes apart Daughter chromosomes group near centrioles Telophase Nuclear membranes reform Chromosomes uncoil Nucleoli reappear Cell has two complete nuclei

87 Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis Figure 3-22

88 Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis Figure 3-22

89 Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm: Cleavage furrow around metaphase plate Membrane closes, producing daughter cells

90 3-9 Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division

91 Tumors and Cancers Abnormal cell growth Tumors (also called, neoplasm) Benign: Encapsulated Malignant: Invasion Metastasis Cancer Disease that results from a malignant tumor

92 3-10 Differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression

93 Cell Differentiation All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all body functions Cells specialize or differentiate To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons) By turning off all genes not needed by that cell All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same 46 chromosomes Differentiation depends on which genes are active and which are inactive

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