The Excretory System. 4 The Excretory System.notebook. May 24, 2017
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1 4 The Excretry System.ntebk The Excretry System OSMOREGULATION (WATER BALANCE) Mst marine invertebrates are smcnfrmers, meaning the cncentratin f slutes in their bdy fluid is equal t that f their envirnment. As a result, they d nt gain r lse water. Osmcnfrmers usually live in water that has a very stable cmpsitin (i.e., the cean) and s their internal envirnment changes very little. Mst vertebrates are smregulatrs, meaning they maintain a cncentratin f slutes in their bdy fluid different frm that f the envirnment. Osmregulatin Prblems faced by smregulatrs: Marine vertebrates Maintain a lwer salt cncentratin in the bdy than in the envirnment. Having bdy fluids hyptnic t the envirnment means water tends t leave the bdy. They must retain water t prevent dehydratin. Marine fishes slve this prblem by... Drinking large amunts f seawater. They then excrete excess ins frm the bld thrugh the gills r skin. They prduce very little urine. Marine Vertebrates 1
2 4 The Excretry System.ntebk Freshwater vertebrates Maintain bdy fluids hypertnic t the envirnment, meaning they are cnstantly gaining water by smsis and lsing slutes by diffusin. Freshwater fishes slve this prblem by Nt drinking water and excreting a large vlume f dilute urine. They replace lst ins by active transprt acrss the gills frm the water int the bld. Fresh Water Vertebrates Terrestrial vertebrates Have bdies with a higher cncentratin f water than the surrunding air s they tend t lse water by evapratin frm the skin and lungs. The bdy cvering helps prevent water lss. Efficient kidneys allw the excretin f cncentrated urine t get rid f waste. A lss f fluid f % results in. thirst 1 Pull pain and cllapse 5 Pull spasms, dimmed visin 10 irium Pull death 12 Pull Water lss effects 2
3 4 The Excretry System.ntebk EXCRETION OF NITROGENOUS WASTES When animals metablize amin acids (which cntain nitrgen), the txic byprduct ammnia is prduced and must be excreted. Animals that excrete this waste as ammnia need access t lts f water because the very txic chemical must be diluted. Fr freshwater fish this is nt a prblem because they can just prduce a large vlume f dilute urine. Marine fish and terrestrial vertebrates must cnserve water s they cannt excrete the waste in the frm f ammnia. Instead, in these animals, the ammnia is cnverted t urea in the liver. Urea is much less txic (abut 100,000 times less txic than ammnia) and is excreted as a cncentrated slutin f urea rather than a dilute slutin f ammnia. Land snails, insects, birds, and many reptiles excrete uric acid as the main nitrgenus waste. It is als relatively nntxic. Uric acid des nt disslve very well in water s it crystallizes and is excreted as a semi-slid paste with very little water lss. Excretin f Nitrgenus wastes Nitrgenus waste 3
4 4 The Excretry System.ntebk ORGANIZATION OF THE VERTEBRATE KIDNEY In humans, the kidneys are lcated in the lwer back. Urine exits each kidney thrugh a duct called the ureter, and bth ureters drain t a cmmn urinary bladder. During urinatin, urine is expelled frm the urinary bladder thrugh a tube called the urethra, which empties t the utside near the vagina in females r thrugh the penis in males. The mammalian kidney has an uter renal crtex and an inner renal medulla. Bth regins are packed with micrscpic tubules called nephrns... Kidney Anatmy Bth regins are packed with micrscpic tubules called nephrns. Each human kidney cntains abut a millin nephrns, with a ttal tubule length f 80 km. Each nephrn cnsists f a single lng tubule and a ball f capillaries, called the glmerulus. The clsed end f the tubule frms a cup, called Bwman s capsule, which surrunds the glmerulus. Frm Bwman s capsule, the filtrate (i.e., the fluid that will becme urine) passes thrugh three regins f the nephrn: the prximal tubule; the lp f Henle, a hairpin turn with a descending limb and an ascending limb; and the distal tubule. The distal tubule empties int a cllecting duct, which receives prcessed filtrate frm many nephrns. The many cllecting ducts empty int the renal pelvis, which is drained by the ureter... Structure f the Nephrn 4
5 4 The Excretry System.ntebk Nephrn Filtratin, reabsrptin, secretin 5
6 4 The Excretry System.ntebk The many cllecting ducts empty int the renal pelvis, which is drained by the ureter. Bld flw t the kidney The kidneys are abut 1% f bdy weight but gets abut 20% f resting cardiac utput. Bld enters the kidney thrugh a branch f the arta called the renal artery which then branches int the smaller afferent arteriles which bring bld t the capillaries f the glmerulus. Bld leaves the capillaries f the glmerulus thrugh an efferent arterile and enters capillaries in the medulla, where they cllect much f the water that was lst thrugh the glmerulus. Venules frm these capillaries lead t the renal vein, which exits the kidney and returns bld t the inferir vena cava. Bld flw t the kidney Human water balance 6
7 4 The Excretry System.ntebk THE KIDNEY AND WASTE REMOVAL FROM THE BLOOD Filtratin As bld passes int the capillaries f the glmerulus, bld pressure frces water and small mlecules ut f the bld int Bwman s capsule. Prteins and large mlecules cannt pass thrugh the walls. Water and small slutes d pass thrugh. The filtrate in Bwman s capsule cntains salt, glucse, amin acids, vitamins, nitrgenus wastes such as urea, and ther small mlecules. Reabsrptin is necessary because filtratin is nnselective and useful mlecules must be recvered frm the urine int the bld. Fluid flws frm the capsule t the prximal tubule in the renal crtex where mst f the salt (NaCl) and water filtered int the capsule are reabsrbed immediately. This ccurs by active transprt f Na + ut f the filtrate int the bld. Water fllws bth because f smsis. Mst f the water and disslved slutes that enter the glmerulus are returned t the bld. In humans, between 1000 and 2000 L f bld passes thrugh the kidneys per day. Abut 180 L f water leaves the bld but mst is reabsrbed, and nly abut 1.5 L f urine is prduced. The nephrns and cllecting ducts reabsrb nearly all f the sugar, vitamins, and ther rganic nutrients frm the initial filtrate and abut 99% f the water. Filtratin/Reabsrptin Nephrn 7
8 4 The Excretry System.ntebk Reabsrptin f water cntinues as the filtrate mves int the descending limb f the lp f Henle. The lp f Henle is permeable t water but nt very permeable t salt and ther small slutes. The cncentratin f salt increases as we mve further int the medulla, s the lp f Henle cntinues t lse water. In cntrast t the descending limb, the ascending limb f the lp f Henle is permeable t salt, but nt water. As filtrate ascends the ascending limb, NaCl diffuses ut f the permeable tubule, increasing the salt cncentratin f the medulla. In the upper part f the ascending limb salt is actively transprted ut f the filtrate. By lsing salt withut giving up water, the filtrate becmes mre dilute as it mves up t the crtex in the ascending limb f the lp. When the cncentratin f sme substances in the bld reaches a certain level, the substance is nt reabsrbed; it remains in the urine. This regulates the levels f several nutrients in the bld. In the distal tubule several different ins are actively transprted int and ut f the filtrate. Reabsrptin Cntinued Secretin Because filtratin is nt selective, sme things must be deliberately remved frm the bld after filtratin. Certain ins, drugs and rganic mlecules nt remved by filtratin are actively transprted frm the bld t the filtrate. This is similar t reabsrptin but in the ppsite directin. Excretin By actively reabsrbing NaCl, the cllecting duct plays a large rle in determining hw much salt is actually excreted in the urine. The duct is permeable t water but nt t salt and the permeability is under hrmnal cntrl. As the filtrate travels thrugh the cllecting duct int the medulla, it encunters an increasing salt cncentratin. Water is lst by smsis, making the filtrate mre cncentrated. Ptentially harmful substances are eliminated by the kidney. Urine als cntains nitrgenus wastes frm the metablism f prtein. It may als cntain excess K +, H + and ther ins. Eliminating excess H + helps maintain the ph f the bld. Excretin f excess water maintains the bld vlume and pressure. Secretin/Excretin 8
9 4 The Excretry System.ntebk Urine cncetratin MAINTANING WATER BALANCE The kidneys cntrl the cncentratin f urine t maintain water balance. By changing the amunt f water eliminated r cnserved, bld vlume and bld pressure can als be maintained by the kidneys. The kidneys excrete hypertnic urine when the bdy needs t cnserve water. The kidneys excretes hyptnic urine when t much water has been ingested. One hrmne imprtant in regulating water balance is antidiuretic hrmne (ADH). The hypthalamus in the brain prduces ADH and it is stred in and secreted by the pituitary gland. Sensr cells in the hypthalamus mnitr the cncentratin f the bld. If the bdy lses water, the cncentratin f the bld increases (i.e., becmes mre salty). The sensrs detect this and trigger the release f ADH. ADH makes the distal tubules and cllecting ducts becme mre permeable t water s that water is reabsrbed frm the filtrate, decreasing the vlume f urine. Nte that ADH can nly reduce water lss. Lst water can nly be replaced by eating r drinking. If a large intake f water has reduced the bld cncentratin (i.e., becmes less salty) very little ADH is released. This decreases the permeability f the distal tubules and cllecting ducts, s water reabsrptin is reduced, resulting in the prductin f mre dilute urine. Alchl inhibits the secretin f ADH, increasing water lss. The resulting dehydratin causes sme symptms f a hangver. It is imprtant, therefre t always drink plenty f water if yu are cnsuming alchl. Maintaining Water Balance 9
10 4 The Excretry System.ntebk ADH and thirst ADH activity 10
11 4 The Excretry System.ntebk KIDNEY DISORDERS Kidney disease The kidneys can be damaged by physical trauma r by infectin. If they fail, dialysis r a transplant is necessary. Diabetes Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Frmerly called insulin dependent, juvenile r early nset diabetes. Apprximately 10 % f peple with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. The immune system attacks the part f the pancreas that prduces insulin. Withut insulin, bld sugar is abnrmally high. Type 2 Frmerly called insulin independent, adult, r late nset diabetes. Abut 90 % have type 2 diabetes, which ccurs when the pancreas des nt prduce enugh insulin r when the bdy d nt effectively use the insulin that is prduced. Type 2 diabetes usually develps in adulthd, althugh increasing numbers f children are being diagnsed. A diet high in sugar can cause the bdy t becme less sensitive t insulin. This causes a chrnic, high bld sugar. High bld sugar causes increased sugar in the urine. This in turn causes mre water t enter the urine by smsis. T end result is increased urine prductin (and resulting water lss). Diabetes facts Apprximately 80% f peple with diabetes will die as a result f heart disease r strke. The nset f type 2 diabetes may be prevented r delayed, thrugh increased physical activity, healthy eating, weight lss, nt smking and stress reductin. If left untreated r imprperly managed, diabetes can result in a variety f cmplicatins, including cmplicatins f t heart, kidney, and eyes, as well as erectile dysfunctin, and nerve damage Risk factrs Being: A member f a high-risk grup (Abriginal, Hispanic, Asian, Suth Asian r African descent) Overweight (especially if yu carry mst f yur weight arund yur middle) Having: A parent, brther r sister with diabetes Health cmplicatins that are assciated with diabetes Given birth t a baby that weighed mre than 4 kg (9 lb) Had gestatinal diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy) Impaired glucse tlerance r impaired fasting glucse High bld pressure High chlesterl r ther fats in the bld Signs and symptms f diabetes include the fllwing: Unusual thirst Frequent urinatin Weight change (gain r lss) Extreme fatigue r lack f energy Blurred visin Frequent r recurring infectins Cuts and bruises that are slw t heal Tingling r numbness in the hands r feet Truble getting r maintaining an erectin Hw is diabetes treated? Physical Activity: Regular physical activity helps yur bdy lwer bld glucse levels, prmtes weight lss, reduces stress and enhances verall fitness. Nutritin: What, when and hw much yu eat all play an imprtant rle in regulating bld glucse levels. Weight Management: Maintaining a healthy weight is especially imprtant in the management f type 2 diabetes. Medicatin: Type 1 diabetes is always treated with insulin. Type 2 diabetes is managed thrugh physical activity and planning and may require medicatins and/r insulin t assist yur bdy in making r using insulin mre effectively. Lifestyle Management: Learning t reduce stress levels in day-t-day life can help peple with diabetes better man their disease. Bld Pressure: High bld pressure can lead t eye disease, heart disease, strke and kidney disease, s peple w diabetes shuld try t maintain a bld pressure level at r belw 130/80. Diabetes Insipidus In this disrder, the hypthalamus is damaged and is unable t cntrl water balance in the bdy. The result is prductin f large vlumes f very dilute urine. Extreme cases can mean 20 L f urine per day. Kidney Stnes Diabetes Mellitus Kidney Disrders Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Als called insulin dependent, juvenile r early nset diabetes. Apprximately 10 % f peple with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. The immune system attacks the part f the pancreas that prduces insulin. Type 2 Als called insulin independent, adult, r late nset diabetes. Abut 90 % have type 2 diabetes The pancreas des nt prduce enugh insulin A diet high in sugar can cause be a cause Diabetes facts Apprximately 80% f peple with diabetes will die as a result f heart disease strke. The nset f type 2 diabetes may be prevented r delayed, thrugh increased physical activity, healthy eating, weight lss, nt smking and stress reductin. Pssible cmplicatins: Heart disease Kidney disease Eye disease Prblems with erectin (imptence) Nerve damage Risk factrs Being: Abriginal, Hispanic, Asian, Suth Asian r African descent Overweight (especially if yu carry mst f yur weight arund yur middle) Signs and symptms Unusual thirst Frequent urinatin Weight change (gain r lss) Extreme fatigue r lack f energy Blurred visin Frequent r recurring infectins Cuts and bruises that are slw t heal Tingling r numbness in the hands r feet Truble getting r maintaining an erectin Hw is diabetes treated? Physical activity Nutritin Weight management Medicatin Lifestyle management Bld pressure Diabetes insipidus The hypthalamus is damaged and is unable t cntrl water balance in the bdy. The result is prductin f large vlumes f very dilute urine. Type I diabetes 11
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