Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline

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1 Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline 36 August 2017 Volume 20 Number 4 Editor-in-Chief Official Research Journal of Tommy the American Boone, PhD, Society MBA of Review Exercise Board Physiologists Todd Astorino, PhD Julien Baker, ISSN PhD Steve Brock, PhD Lance Dalleck, PhD Eric Goulet, PhD Robert Gotshall, PhD Alexander Hutchison, PhD M. Knight-Maloney, PhD Len Kravitz, PhD James Laskin, PhD Yit Aun Lim, PhD Lonnie Lowery, PhD Derek Marks, PhD Cristine Mermier, PhD Robert Robergs, PhD Chantal Vella, PhD Dale Wagner, PhD Frank Wyatt, PhD Ben Zhou, PhD Official Research Journal of the American Society of Exercise Physiologists ISSN JEPonline Physiological Restoration and Improvement in Physical Performance in Response to a Taper Period in Young Swimmers Orranete Pereira Padilhas 1,2,4, Ytalo Mota Soares 1,4,5, Raquel Suelen Brito da Silva 1,2, Reabias de Andrade Pereira 1,2, Fabiano Ferreira Lima 1, Manoel Miranda Neto 1,3, Maria Gercica Magna Silva 1, Gustavo da Silva Félix 1,2, Keyth Sulamitta de Lima Guimarães 1,3, Alexandre Sérgio Silva 1,2,3,4 1 Research Laboratory of Physical Training Applied to Performance and Health, 2 Associate Graduate Program in Physical Education, University of Pernambuco Recife / Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, Brazil, 3 Post Graduate Program in Nutrition Sciences of Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, Brazil, 4 Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, Brazil, 5 Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil ABSTRACT Padilhas OP, Soares YM, Silva RSB, Pereira RA, Lima FF, Miranda Neto M, Silva MGM, Félix GS, Guimarães KSL, Silva AS. Physiological Restoration and Improvement in Physical Performance in Response to a Taper Period in Young Swimmers. JEPonline 2017;20(4): The purpose of this study was to determine if 2 wks of taper is sufficient to promote physiological restoration and improvement in the physical performance of young swimmers. Thirty days before, the 1st day, and on the 15th day of the taper, 6 athletes (4 females and 2 males) 14.5 ± 1.4 yrs of age were selected because of their national level performance. Each subject was evaluated for markers of muscle damage (creatine kinase, CK and lactate dehydrogenase, LDH), systemic inflammation (us- CRP and Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein, AGP) and liver activity (AST and ALT). They completed a questionnaire for mood state (POMS), and then swam a 100-m free style test. The

2 taper was exponential with slow decay. The athletes engaged the taper period before a national championship as part of a macrocycle of 6 months. Although LDH decreased significantly (39%; P = 0.006), there were no changes in CK, markers of inflammation and liver activity, mood, or training distress scale, and no change in the 100-m free style time. The findings indicate that the 2 wks of taper restored levels of muscular damage, but did not improve the swimmers physical performance. Key Words: Athletic Performance, Recovery, Swimming 37 INTRODUCTION Taper is a training method used by sports coaches, in which there is progressive linear or non-linear reduction of 60% to 90% in training volume or in other components of the training load (intensity and frequency) in the weeks before the competition target of a season (3,10). It is used to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of training and to optimize athletic performance for the main competition of the season (17,18,23). What justifies the reduction in training intensity and/or frequency is the expectation of decreasing the training-induced fatigue without losing the athlete s physiologic adaptations from months of training (19). Most coaches believe that the decrease in physiological stress helps to restore the athlete s cardiorespiratory (i.e., VO 2 max) and peripheral muscular responses (i.e., oxidative enzyme), which helps to promote improvement in the athletes physical performance (16,20). In competitive swimming, the effectiveness of tapering has been demonstrated by the improvement in lipid peroxidation parameters (TBARS and Peroxides Total) (8), the decrease in parameters of muscle damage such as serum enzyme activity, creatine kinase (CK) (5,15), the increase in power of the upper limbs (31), and the improved performance on specific tests (2-4,8). However, it is important to note that these findings are related to high-performance in adult athletes (1). This is a concern since the training loads in adolescents may differ from the observations reported in adults. D acquisto et al. (6) reported differences in response to muscle power and lactate concentration in young athletes when compared to adult athletes. Yet, it seems that there are not many studies that have substantiated this point, particularly as it relates to the athletes physiological recovery. This raises the concern whether tapering promotes similar recovery responses in adolescent athletes compared to adults. In studies with adult athletes, it is established that the taper can last from 7 to 28 days, and that 2 wks of tapering is the period most commonly used by the coaches (3,9,29). However, whether this period of time is also sufficient for adolescent swimmers is something that has not been determined. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine if tapering for a 2-wk period is sufficient to produce physiological responses that are performance enhancing in young swimmers.

3 38 METHODS Subjects This study was conducted with swimmers who started training in January and who participated in the national winter championship (July). Six athletes (4 females and 2 males) with a mean age of 14.5 ± 1.4 yrs participated. Their mean weight and height were 57.9 ± 4.0 kg and 1.66 ± 0.2 cm, respectively. The subjects acknowledged that they would be excluded from the study if they: (a) did not follow the routine weekly workouts; (b) did not perform at least three of the evaluations required by the experimental protocol; and (c) discontinued the training for more than a week during the last two months before the start of the study. Ethical Aspects The project was submitted and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Sciences at the Center for Health, Federal University of Paraiba (CCS/UFPB) under protocol number 228/14. Either the athlete or the legally responsible party agreed to sign a consent form to participate as well as a Clear and a Consent Agreement for subjects under 18 yrs of age in accordance to Resolution No. 466/12 the National Council for Health. A letter of consent by a responsible party also signed for the place where the research was carried out. Study Design The swimmers performed tapering during the last 2 wks (15 days). A month before the start of tapering (30 Days PRE), the first day of tapering (Day 1), and the last day of tapering 48 hrs before the competition (Day 15), the subjects were evaluated for: (a) psychometric variables (Profile of Mood State - Questionnaire POMS); (b) biochemical variables (parameters: muscle damage - CK and LDH, ALT and AST liver function and inflammatory process us-crp and AGP); and (c) a 100 m free style time performance test (refer to Figure 1). Figure 1. Experimental Design.

4 Preparation of Subjects The subjects were instructed not to perform any other training or physical activity by the end of the study that would be in addition to the training prescribed by their trainers. They were asked to refrain from daily activities that altered their normal pattern of sleep, and to avoid alcoholic beverages. They were also asked to maintain normal eating patterns. The swimmers performed a tapering of the exponential type of slow decay, which is similar to the model proposed by Mujika and Padilla (18). Changes occurred in the volume and the intensity components. Physical training was reduced to the athletes load and total duration of training to strengthen joints and promote hypertrophy during the first 10 days. During the last 5 days, there was no training out of the pool. The training volume was 38,000 m wk -1 at 30 days prior to the taper. It was 28,900 m wk -1 at the beginning of the taper, which was decreased to 7,900 m wk -1 at the end of the taper. The duration of training was 15.5 hrs wk -1 at 30 Days prior to the taper. It was 8.45 hrs wk -1 at beginning of the taper, which was reduced to 2 hrs wk -1 at the end of the taper. The intensity varied between 80 to 90% of the subjects maximum heart rate, 87 to 100% and 75 to 84% in the 30 Days PRE-taper, beginning of the taper and at end of the taper. Evaluations Trained and experienced nurses took 8 ml of blood from the subjects antecubital vein. The blood samples were immediately placed in tubes without an anticoagulant. The samples were centrifuged at 3000 rev min -1 for 15 min. The supernatant was then transferred to tubes and eppendorf tubes that were cooled to -20 C or 4 C until analysis depending on the analysis. These collections were performed in pre-workout time with athletes in idle status, and they were performed before the application of the psychometric questionnaire. Analysis of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were quantified following the guidelines of the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (11). The Labtest (Minas Gerais, Brazil) commercial kit was used, and the manufacturer's instructions were followed. The absorbance was obtained at 240 LabMax automatic analyzer channels at wavelength 340 nm for both enzymes. Alanine amino transferase (ALT) and aspartate amino transferase (AST) were quantified in kinetic mode, while following the guidelines of the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IFCC), in serum by means of commercial kits ALT / GPT Liquiform and AST / GOT Liquiform (Labtest, Minas Gerais, Brazil). The concentrations were determined at LabMax 240 automated analyzer at wavelength of 340 nm. Ultrasensitive C-reactive protein (us-crp) was quantified by immunoturbidimetry using a commercial kit (Labtest, Minas Gerais, Brazil) after calibration (Calibra Plus ultra-pcr, Labtest, Minas Gerais, Brazil). The absorbance was obtained at 240 LabMax automatic analyzer channels at wavelength 540 nm. Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) was quantified by immunoturbidimetry using a commercial kit (Labtest, Minas Gerais, Brazil) according to manufacturer's instructions. For calibration, we used the Calibra series calibrator Labtest (Calibra plus Protein - Ref-346). The absorbance 39

5 was obtained at 240 LabMax automatic analyzer channels (Lake Saint-MG, Brazil) at a wavelength of 340 nm. Evaluation Psychometric The subjects responded to the questionnaire version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) that was adapted to the sport by Raglin and Morgan (24) and translated by Viana, Almeida, and Santos (32). It consisted of 36 items and six scales: Stress, Depression, Hostility, Fatigue, Confusion and Vigour. The result is given as a Global Mood State (GMS). The instrument is further adapted by Raglin and Morgan (24) to determine a range to misfit training (Training Distress Scale, TDS), which adds sex additional items: (Worthless, Useless, Quilty, Miserable, Useless, and Apathetic). The scale is useful in the identification of unwanted effects of overreaching or overtraining. The POMS was carried out in a room of the Training Center before the performance test and training. The subjects were given specific recommendations that their answers should correspond to the 7-day period including the questionnaire application day. At the time of questionnaire application, the subjects were also instructed not to talk. Performance Evaluation After the first assessments, the swimmers performed a standardized warm-up that was between 600 to 1400 m with exercises and varying intensities, which was then followed by a 100-m free style. An experienced arbitrator of the Brazilian Aquatic Sports Confederation (CBDA) did the timing. Statistical Analysis The data are presented as mean ± SD. To test the normality of the data, the Shapiro-Wilk Test was used. To compare the different time points in the same group, the independent t- test was used when the data were parametric. The Mann Whitney Test was used when the data were not parametric. The statistical significance was set at the alpha level of P<0.05. The data were analyzed using GraphPad Instat 3.0 software (GraphPad, San Diego, CA, USA). RESULTS Table 1 presents the effect of taper on biochemical markers. In terms of muscle damage, while tapering resulted in a significant decrease in LDH marker of 39% from Day 1 to Day 15, there was no significant change (P=0.07) in CK from Day 1 to Day 15. Also, there were no significant changes in the parameters of systemic inflammation (i.e., us-crp and AGP). The results observed for the parameters that evaluate liver function, AST and ALT, demonstrated no significant changes either. At 30 Days PRE-taper, the subjects presented a Global Mood State (GMS) compatible with a deteriorated state mood. However, at Day 1, they showed normal values. At Day 15, there was no significant increase in GSM. The TDS scores from 30 Day PRE to Day 1 and from Day 1 to Day 15 were not statistically significant (Table 1). The GMS and TDS values for swimmers 30 days before the taper, during the 1st day of taper, and during the 15th day of taper were not statistically significant. There was no statistically significant difference noted in the subjects 100-m free style performance from Day 1 to Day

6 41 Table 1. Effect of Taper on Biochemical Markers and Mood State in the Swimmers. 30 Days PRE Day 1 Day 15 LDH (U/L) ± ± ± 32.9* CK (U/L) ± ± ± 36.6 us-crp (mg dl -1 ) 1.2 ± ± ± 1.0 AGP (mg dl -1 ) 60.6 ± ± ± 19.5 ALT (U/L) 11.5 ± ± ± 2.5 AST (U/L) 20.8 ± ± ± 2.9 GMS (score) ± ± ± 24.5 TDS (score) 2.9 ± ± ± 3.5 *Significantly statistical difference between Day 1 and Day 15 with a P value of P<0.05. LDH = Lactate Dehydrogenase; CK = Creatine Kinase); us-crp = Ultrasensitive C-Reactive Protein; AGP = Alpha-1- acid Glycoprotein; ALT = Alanine Amino Transferase; AST = Aspartate Amino Transferase; GMS = Global Mood State; TDS = Training Distress Scale Figure 2. Effect of Taper in the 100 m Performance Test in Younger Swimmers.

7 42 DISCUSSION The findings in this study indicate that 2 wks of taper did not result in an improvement in either the subjects physiological recovery or the 100 m freestyle performance despite the significant decrease in LDH as a marker for muscle damage. Toubekis et al. (29) evaluated the effect of a taper period with swimmers similar to the adolescents in the present study (14.2 ± 1.3 yrs old). They concluded that the taper did not result in a significant improvement in the athletes performance, which is in agreement with our findings. While the potential of taper to promote physiological recovery and improvement in the athletes performance is a phenomenon well established (3,7,12,13,21,22,33), the majority of the supporting data comes from studies with elite adult athletes. In teenagers, Trinity et al. (31) found significant differences for a group of 11 collegiate swimmers (19.9 ± 0.4 yrs) in final preparation for a national championship in maximal power by 11.6% (P<0.01), torque by 7.4% (P<0.02), and swim performance by 4.7% (P<0.001). These results were found during the 1st and the 3rd wk of taper. Papoti et al. (22) evaluated the effects of one taper period of 1.5 wks duration on 14 swimmers with a mean age of (16 ± 1.3 yrs). They reported that swimming force and maximal performance of the 200-m swim improved 3.6% and 1.6%, respectively (P<0.05). Despite the lack of statistical significance in the present study regarding the swimmers performance, the improvement in the 100 m free style of 0.6 sec deserves to be considered (given that it is an improvement of 4.3%). In fact, Trinity and colleagues (31) reported an improvement of 4.7%, which is very similar to the results in our study. Papoti et al. (22) found only 1.6% to the 200 m. Therefore, although we understand the difference found in our study did not represent a statistical improvement, the value is similar to previous studies in which the authors found similar improvements as a result of a taper. According to Smith (27,28), the physiological wear associated with excessive training can damage muscle tissue resulting in systemic inflammation that causes: (a) the activation of monocytes and proinflammatory cytokines (Interleukin, IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor, TNF); and (b) the triggering of endocrine, neural, and behavioral symptoms in athletes. This is why a decrease in the athletes training load during the final days before an important competition is anticipated to improve performance, especially among adult high level athletes (2,19,25). Yet, to better understand the improvement in performance, more physiological variables should be investigated. It appears that only the present study looked at two muscle damage markers, a systemic inflammation marker, and an oxidative stress variable. Interestingly, none of the markers was influenced by the taper. One explanation is the athletes presented themselves physiologically equilibrated, based on their benchmarks for these variables. The clinical limits for CK and LDH are 82 to 1,083 U/L and 230 to 460 U/L, respectively (14,26). Limitation of this Study The sample size in this study is potentially problematic. However, this is common among studies in the sports training area (15,30), and it is a similar sample size to other studies that tested adolescent swimmers. Another limitation is that the present study identified specific biochemical variables to evaluate the taper in adolescents and the effect on muscle wasting and systemic inflammation. Without question there are other immune endocrine character

8 markers that are involved in the athletes physiological responses to training and they should be evaluated as well. CONCLUSIONS Although LDH decreased significantly (39%; P = 0.006), there were no changes in the athletes CK, markers of inflammation and liver activity, mood, or training distress scale, and no change in the 100-m free style time. Hence, while the findings indicate that the 2 wks of taper restored levels of muscular damage, the taper did not improve the swimmers physical performance. This study highlights the need to develop a line of research for future studies with taper in young athletes. 43 Address for correspondence: Alexandre Sérgio Silva, Laboratory of Physical Training Applied to Performance and Health, Department of Physical Education (DEF), Federal University of Paraiba, Health Sciences Center, Campus I, University City, João Pessoa, Paraiba, Brazil, ZIP CODE , alexandresergiosilva@yahoo.com.br REFERENCES 1. Berger B, Motl RW, Butki B, Martin DT, Wilkinson J, Owen DR. Mood and cycling performance in response to three weeks of high-intensity, short-duration overtraining, and a two week taper. Sport Psychol. 1999;13(4): Bonifazi M, Sardella F, Luppo C. Preparatory versus main competitions: Differences in performances, lactate responses and pre-competition plasma cortisol concentration in elite male swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;82: Bosquet L, Montpetit J, Arvisais D, Mujika I. Effects of tapering on performance: A meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39: Chalencon S, Busso T, Lacour JR, Garet M, Pichot V, et al. A model for the training effects in swimming demonstrates a strong relationship between parasympathetic activity, performance and index of fatigue. Plos One. 2012;2(7). 5. Costill DL, Thomas R, Robergs RA, Pascoe D, Lambert S, et al. Adaptations to ming training: Influence of training volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991;23(3): D acquisto LJ, Bone ML, Takahashi S, Langhans G, Barzdukas AP, Troup JP. Changes in aerobic power and swimming economy as a result of reduced training volume. In: Swimming Science VI. London: E & FN Spon. 1992; De Lacey J, Brughelli M, McGuigan M, Hansen K, Samozino P, Morin J. The effects of tapering on power-force-velocity profiling and jump performance in professional rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(12):

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