The sport of gymnastics is subjective in its officiating, LONGITUDINAL TRACKING OF MUSCULAR POWER CHANGES OF NCAA DIVISION I COLLEGIATE WOMEN GYMNASTS

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1 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 004, (), National Strength & Conditioning Association LONGITUDINAL TRACKING OF MUSCULAR POWER CHANGES OF NCAA DIVISION I COLLEGIATE WOMEN GYMNASTS DUNCAN N. FRENCH, ANA L. GÓMEZ, JEFF S. VOLEK, MARTYN R. RUBIN, NICHOLAS A. RATAMESS, MATTHEW J. SHARMAN, LINCOLN A. GOTSHALK, WAYNE J. SEBASTIANELLI, MARGOT PUTUKIAN, ROBERT U. NEWTON, 5 KEIJO HÄKKINEN, 4 STEVEN J. FLECK, AND WILLIAM J. KRAEMER Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 0669; Center for Sports Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 60; Department of Sport Science, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado 090; 4 Department of Biology of Physical Activity, The University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; 5 School of Biomedical and Exercise and Sport Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia. ABSTRACT. French, D.N., A.L. Gómez, J.S. Volek, M.R. Rubin, N.A. Ratamess, M.J. Sharman, L.A. Gotshalk, W.J. Sebastianelli, M. Putukian, R.U. Newton, K. Häkkinen, S.J. Fleck, and W.J. Kraemer. Longitudinal tracking of muscular power changes of NCAA Division I collegiate women gymnasts. J. Strength Cond. Res. (): Gymnastics relies upon power as a critical component of sports-specific fitness. The purpose of this study was to monitor long-term training adaptations in the power of National Collegiate Athletics Association Division I women gymnasts. Twenty members of a women s gymnastic team (aged ) were tracked over years with the first year a baseline year of testing. Whole body power for the countermovement (CMJ) and squat (SJ) vertical jump was obtained via force plate analyses at assessment time points during each year (February and November). Results showed significant (p 0.05) and continued increases in peak power output in the CMJ and SJ at each biannual assessment. Improvements of 46% ( 00 W) for the CMJ and 4% ( 900 W) for the SJ were observed at the end of the tracking period. Peak power for the CMJ and SJ were recorded at 0 W ( 50 W) and 000 W ( 5 W), respectively. Associated improvements in the time to peak power of 6% ( 0.9 second) and % ( 0.5 second) were also found for the CMJ and SJ. There were no significant changes in body mass or total skinfold thickness, however, a shift toward improved fat free mass (i.e., lean muscle mass) was apparent. These data underscore the importance that specificity, and more importantly power development, should play in the conditioning of collegiate women gymnasts training programs. KEY WORDS. resistance training, specificity, relative power, hypertrophy, collegiate gymnastics INTRODUCTION The sport of gymnastics is subjective in its officiating, and one in which winning is qualitative rather than quantitative and body image plays a yet undefined role. However, the ability to perform forceful high velocity muscle actions (i.e., power) is an essential component of the sport (e.g., leaping, jumping, and tumbling), and one that can ultimately influence scoring (0). The woman gymnast faces a sport that requires high levels of strength, power, and flexibility. Furthermore, gymnasts are required to maintain a lean body conducive to the enhancement of relative power, body mass, and appearance (,, ). It is increasingly accepted that, when carried out alone, the repetitive performance of gymnastic movements does not optimize the levels of strength or power required for advanced gymnasts who are already at a high level of performance capabilities (9). Supplemental training has started to play an increasingly greater role in priming the athlete for high level performances and injury prevention. Thus, sport-specific conditioning beyond sport practice is now regarded as necessary for the development of core strength and power. With the incorporation of resistance training into a gymnast s regular conditioning regimen, it may be possible to develop a better athlete physically with an integration of strength, skill, and maybe the forgotten element of training for the rate of force development and power production to ultimately complement and help to mediate gymnastic skills (). Resistance training protocols that solely focus on strength development and muscular hypertrophy with higher repetition sets do not mediate high rates of force development and therefore miss a major component of the specificity needed for optimal gymnastics performance. It is important to state that maintaining strength is vital but specialized power training to complement high force production is too often not included. In addressing the requirements of the collegiate woman gymnast, a specific resistance training protocol should meet the exact demands of the sport, as the construct of the program is directly related to the training outcome (4). Gymnastics requires high power outputs to be achieved during high velocity movements, and conditioning for gymnasts should reflect these needs (). Lyttle et al. () have reported that the incorporation of high velocity resistance training, in conjunction with conventional resistance exercises, has a significant effect on muscular power. To date, no studies have addressed the role that resistance training plays in the development of functional muscular power specific to collegiate women gymnasts. Knowledge of the long-term adaptations consequent to sports-specific resistance training might therefore be regarded as valuable to both practitioners and coaches. Tracking studies may help provide an understanding of how power training may influence athletes who already have high levels of fitness. It was hypothe- 0

2 0 FRENCH, GOMEZ, VOLEK ET AL. sized that with specific resistance-training techniques, beneficial gains in muscular power could be achieved in women gymnasts already regarded as highly conditioned. Thus, the purpose of this study was to track and evaluate the long-term changes in total body power of elite collegiate women gymnasts over multiple years and determine the impact of changes in supplemental resistance training styles. METHODS Experimental Approach to the Problem Elite collegiate women gymnasts were tracked for years in a longitudinal study that included both competitive and off-season conditioning with the first year being a baseline year of testing during which a machine-based training program was used. Data were collected in the spring (February) and in the fall (November) of each tracking year. Baseline measures of total body power were established in the first year of the study, prior to the introduction of a sports-specific resistance-training program that emphasized the development of muscular power. The strength/power conditioning program introduced after the baseline year was designed to meet the specific needs of maximizing power output capabilities of the upper and lower body while maintaining individual body mass; both parameters conducive to the mwoman gymnast Furthermore, the conditioning program complemented the skill training already being carried out by the gymnasts. Developed as a periodized continuum that allowed for coordinated adaptation, the strength/power training program prioritized high velocity resisted movements. Subjects Twenty members of the Pennsylvania State University s National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I women s gymnastic team were tracked during the study. Characteristics of the subjects were: age (9.7. years), body mass ( kg), and height ( cm). Each athlete had a long-term history of gymnastic participation and training and could be classified as possessing a moderate to high resistance training background of years. The subjects all participated in the study as part of their regular conditioning program, and each gymnast gave their informed consent to participate. Subjects did not adjust their diets or lifestyles significantly during the course of the study. Repeated - day diet records indicated caloric intake was sufficient to support the sport training and conditioning programs. Testing Protocols All of the subjects were thoroughly familiarized with the experimental protocols and allowed to practice to insure high test-retest reliabilities. Each of the subjects reported to the laboratory having not performed any form of training or conditioning on the day of assessment. Body mass was recorded using an electronic scale and assessments were recorded to the nearest 0. kg. Skinfold analysis for the determination of body fat content was introduced in the fall (Nov) of the first year of the study. Skinfolds (i.e., tricep, thigh, suprailliac) were measured using a Harpenden skinfold caliper (British Indicators, Ltd., Sussex, England) using the methods described by Jackson and Pollock (). The sum of the tricep, thigh, and suprailliac skinfolds was used as an indication of whole body adiposity. For consistency, the same experienced investigator performed all measures, and reliability intraclass R was 0.9. Prior to exercise testing, subjects carried out a standardized dynamic warm-up of 5-minutes submaximal cycling at 60 W against a load of 0.5 kg. Measures of peak power output and time to peak power were determined using a force plate with customized software (AMTI, Watertown, MA). Two vertical jump protocols (countermovement and squat jumps) were used to determine the influence of the stretch-shortening cycle and theoretically the elastic component over time (). Subjects performed trials for each jump and the peak power was determined as the highest value of the attempts with 5 minutes rest between attempts. During the CMJ subjects commenced the exercise from a standing position, volitionally squatting to their perceived optimal depth and immediately returning to jump vertically for maximal height. The SJ was started from a squat position (90 ) in which the thighs were observed to be parallel with the floor. Once in position, the subject volitionally performed a maximal effort jump without any prior counter movement. During both jump protocols subjects maintained their hands in a position on the iliac crest in order to remove extraneous variance resulting from arm swing. Important to this study was the fact that test-retest R values for the reliability of the measurements used demonstrated intraclass R Training Procedures. Throughout the tracking period all gymnasts participated in their regular skill-training program in the gymnastics room. These sports performance practice-based training sessions were carried out 5 days per week (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday, Sunday) in line with NCAA rules for time allotments of in- and off-season participation times. The same coaching staff oversaw skill training throughout the -year period, giving consistency in approach. Skill training was comprised of competition practice for the vault, floor, beam and bars. Floor exercises were performed on Tuesdays and Thursdays and were considered the highest intensity workouts of the week. The skill training was not modified beyond its usual construct throughout the study, with the exception of standard fluctuations in training volume during competition phases. During the baseline year of the gymnasts followed a fixed movement, machine-based conditioning regimen. During the machine-based program, weekly microcycles followed a 4-day rotation (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday), with each rotation composed of a cycling of the same basic exercises, as shown in Table. These exercises included basic machine exercises (e.g., leg press, safe squat) and single-joint movements (e.g., leg extension, lateral raise). Conditioning was carried out prior to skill training and workouts lasted between minutes. There was little variety in exercise selection between days, and specific target outcomes (i.e., strength days, power days) were not apparent. Sets of each exercise were performed using a load that allowed for the completion of 0 5 repetitions of each movement. With this mode of training the gymnasts placed little emphasis on contractile velocities or movement speed and a normal contraction speed was used due to the use of only the machine equipment. The periodized, multiple-set resistance training pro-

3 SPECIFICITY OF POWER TRAINING IN FEMALE GYMNASTS 0 TABLE. Basic machine-based structure used pre-season and in-season prior to the use of a periodized resistance training.* Day Sets Reps Day Sets Reps Day Sets Reps Day 4 Sets Reps BB bench N flys N row N seated press N lat raise BW chins N seated press DB front raise DB row BB bench N flys N standing calf Hang crunch BW dips BB seated press Safe squat N standing calf BW dips N row BB upright row BW chins Crunches Pre-season 0 Safe squat 0 N standing calf 0 N seated press 0 N row BB bench 5 N flys 5 BW chins In-season *N Nautilus; BB bar bell; BW body weight; DB dumb bell. DB front raise DB lateral raise BW chin BB bench DB row BW dip Push ups Hanging crunch BB seated press BW dips BB lung N standing calf DB seated press DB row DB lateral raise N flys Crunches gram implemented by the investigators emphasized the performance of powerful, high-velocity sport-specific exercises. Each year (macrocycle) was periodized into specific 4 month periods (mesocycle), which cycled through a general preparation phase into strength development, power augmentation, and muscular adaptation phases (see Table ). Novel resistance exercises using medicine balls, resistance bands (Jump Stretch Inc., Boardman, OH), and free weights were utilized throughout the program. These novel training techniques served to minimize the breaking phases associated with traditional machine-based resistance training (7). Gymnasts performed strength/power resistance training days per week (Monday, Wednesday, Friday) before practice. Gymnasts were therefore regarded as rested so that the quality of resistance training protocols could be maximized. This study interacted with the sport program and practice and competitive schedules. This program of conditioning replaced the existing fixed weight machine regimen originally performed in the baseline year. The strength/power program was periodized and volume changes were made throughout the season. The changes in the exercises also altered the contractile velocities of the exercises, thereby varying the intensity of the training program. Typically 4 sets of 5 0RM training zones of each exercise were carried out, with the performance of all movements focused on controlled movements but also including high velocity rates of force application (i.e., power) as allowed by the specific exercises (e.g., hang cleans). The exercises implemented were highly specific to strength/power utilization in gymnastics, and focused on muscle activation patterns equivalent to those seen in competition. As no laboratory equipment suitable for controlling velocity speed was accessible in the strength and conditioning room, experienced trainers taught and supervised the performance of all power exercises in order to insure optimal teaching and power performances. We have found in our prior work that direct supervision results in significant increases in exercise performance in both muscular strength and power when compared to unsupervised training even in knowledgeable subjects (5). Intensity of load was set heavy enough such that a variation in the range of 5 0 repetitions were performed. Statistical Analyses Planned comparison, independent t-tests were used to compare differences in peak power output, the rate of force development, and anthropometrical changes over time. To maintain alpha level of 0.05 while reducing the chance of making a Type I error, Bonferroni corrections were applied. Comparisons were made between the initial baseline standards (Year ) and each biannual assessment following the introduction of the strength/power supplemental training program. An alpha level of p 0.05 was used to define significance in this investigation. RESULTS Measures of peak power output during the CMJ indicated significant (p 0.05) and continued increases in mechanical power following the introduction of the strength/power training regimen (Figure ). At each biannual assessment, mean peak power was significantly greater than the performance standards achieved at baseline. Countermovement vertical jump peak power output increased

4 04 FRENCH, GOMEZ, VOLEK ET AL. TABLE. Example of basic exercises used in a Power Development Phase mesocycle of the periodized resistance-training program after the baseline year.* Power development phase Day Sets Reps Day Sets Reps Day Sets Reps FB squat FB bench press FB wrist curls FB external shoulder rotation FB internal shoulder rotation FB upright row FB shoulder rotation FB stiff leg dead lift FB reverse arm curls Sit ups FB resistance sprints MB giant circles MB good mornings MB hip rotations MB lateral bend MB squat, jump, toss MB side lung MB underhand throw MB lateral throw MB chest pass FB squats FB wrist curls FB hip adduction FB hip abduction 5-second gripping FB resistance sprints *FB flex band; BB bar bell; MB medicine ball; N Nautilus Jump squats BB military press N lateral pulldown BB bench press BB high pulls N seated row N reverse leg curl N heel raises 5 0 FIGURE. Peak power output measured during the countermovement jump. Values are means SD and represent the maximal power recorded via ground reaction forces for the baseline year (black) and while following the strength/power program (white). * P 0.05 from ; ** p 0.05 from ; $ p 0.05 from corresponding squat jump. FIGURE. Time to peak power output measured during the countermovement jump. Values are means SD and represent the time taken to reach maximal power during the countermovement jump for the baseline year (black) and while following the strength/power program (white). * p 0.05 from ; ** p 0.05 from. from initial levels of 00 W ( 00 W) prior to the introduction of the new program, to 0 W ( 50 W) during the strength/power program (the fall of year ). The change in peak power reflected an increase of 00 W that was equivalent to a 46% increase above baseline levels. This change was found to have a large ( 0.) statistical effect (d.6). The time taken to achieve peak power output during the same countermovement jumps are indicated in Figure. Significant reductions in the rates of force development were observed at all assessments following the introduction of the strength/power training regimen. Time to peak power was found to reduce from 0.6 ( 0.07) seconds to 0.79 ( 0.6) seconds by the end of the -year study, a difference of 0.9 seconds. This significant reduction in time was equivalent to a 6% change in the rate of force application and was found to have a large statistical effect (d.). A similar trend for improved power output levels was also observed during SJ assessments (Figure ). Baseline peak power standards were recorded at 00 W ( 450 W) following the period of machine-based conditioning. After FIGURE. Peak power output measured during the squat jump. Values are means SD and represent the maximal power recorded via ground reaction forces for the baseline year (black) and while following the strength/power program (white). * p 0.05 from ; ** p 0.05 from.

5 SPECIFICITY OF POWER TRAINING IN FEMALE GYMNASTS 05 FIGURE 4. Time to peak power output measured during the squat jump. Values are means SD and represent the time taken to reach maximal power during the squat jump for the baseline year (black) and while following the strength/power program (white). * p 0.05 from ; ** p 0.05 from. the introduction of the strength/power training regimen, peak power levels significantly increased to 000 W ( 50 W) at maximum (the spring of year ). Data indicate that the change in training protocol brought about an improvement of 900 W that amounted to a 4% increase above initial baseline standards (d.00). When compared to the CMJ data, the SJ peak power output was seen to be significantly lower than the CMJ for the last year and a half of the tracking period. Significant and continued reductions below baseline in the times to peak power output for the SJ were found by the fall (November) of year (Figure 4). Times decreased by % from 0.9 ( 0.099) seconds at the spring (February) of year to 0.4 ( 0.097) at the spring of year. The change reflected a 0.5 second improvement in the time taken to achieve peak power output. This change was also found to be of a statistically large effect (d.5). Anthropometric data indicate mean body mass increased from 55. kg to 5. kg. This change in mass (.9 kg) reflects a 5.% increase above baseline values following the introduction of the new training regimen, however, none of the changes were shown to be significant (p 0.05). Further analyses of body composition data also indicated that a concomitant decrease of 6.7% in the sum of skinfolds (tricep, thigh, suprailliac) additionally occurred. Total skinfold thickness was found to reduce from 9.06 mm to 6.4 mm during the study period. This decrease was also not statistically significant, however the reduction in fat mass in conjunction with the small increases in total body mass reflects a greater distribution of lean tissue at the end of the tracking period (see Table ). DISCUSSION Baseline peak power values of 00 W for the CMJ and 00 W for the SJ represent the levels of muscular power that the gymnasts were achieving at the start of the - year tracking period. These data indicate the standard of conditioning that the gymnasts had accomplished using a lower velocity, machine-based resistance training approach. On completion of the study period, cumulative data indicate that the elite women gymnasts significantly improved their capacity to develop whole body muscular power. Significant and continued increases relative to TABLE. thickness.* Assessment Yr Feb Yr Nov Yr Feb Yr Nov Yr Feb Yr Nov Changes in mean body mass and total skinfold Body mass (kg) N/A Total skinfold thickness (mm) N/A * Values are means SD and represent the body mass (kg) and total skinfold thickness (mm) recorded for the baseline year (shaded) and whilst following the strength/power program. N/A data not available. 46% ( 00 W) for the countermovement jump and 4% ( 900 W) for the squat jump indicate that the strength/ power resistance-training regimen had profound effects on whole-body muscular power. In association with the improvements in peak power output, concomitant increases in the rate of force development were also found. Reductions of 6% and % in the time taken to achieve peak power were recorded for the countermovement and squat jumps, respectively. Interestingly, for women gymnasts, excessive muscle hypertrophy and the upturn in body mass that accompanies heavy resistance training (6, 7,, ) has been discouraged. Typically power development does not occur in conjunction with excessive cellular hypertrophy and this benefits the power to body mass ratio which enhances performance of gymnastic skills. Our data indicate that the strength/power program brought about a nonsignificant increase (.9 kg) in total body mass of 5.% at the end of the years, limiting the impact on power production. In addition, a concomitant decrease of 6.7% in total skinfold thickness was also found at the end of the tracking period, potentially enhancing muscular definition and appearance important for many scoring aspects of the sport. Although the change in skinfold thickness was also found to be nonsignificant, the consequence of such an adaptation should be evaluated not only by statistical significance, but also by physiological significance. The changes in fat mass suggest that an improvement in lean muscle mass occurred, however, this change did not significantly impact the total body mass of the gymnasts. The effects of this shift toward greater lean body mass is an improvement in the relative power-to-weight ratio of the gymnasts due to the removal of inefficient body tissue (i.e., fat mass). These data reflect the findings of Sands et al. (9), who reported that the introduction of resistance training as part of gymnastic conditioning can increase lean body mass while simultaneously decreasing fat mass. The ability to develop improved levels of muscular power is reflected by the potential to perform more advanced skills and acrobatics (e.g., leaping). Leaping ability is an essential component in many sports, especially gymnastics where leap height and reproducibility can influence scoring (0). The consequence of the significant changes in muscular power development that occurred in the present group of elite women gymnasts was reflected by improved placing during competition, most notably at the NCAA nationals. The largest improvements in competition scoring were found in the floor exercises, where

6 06 FRENCH, GOMEZ, VOLEK ET AL. leaping and tumbling have a significant role. Individual scores and placing improved appreciably. Specificity of movement speed is an important variable in the design of any resistance-training program (0). This is increasingly so for gymnastics, which is reliant upon powerful muscle actions characterized by high contractile velocities (5). Strengthening exercises are velocity specific, which means the speed at which an athlete trains is directly related to the speed at which strength can be developed (). Although machine based resistance training has been shown to increase maximal force and thus the highest point of the force-time curve (), this type of training does not adhere to the principles of specificity, and therefore does not improve power performance appreciably. The specificity of gymnastic conditioning must replicate the muscle activation patterns observed within the construct of the sport (4). This includes the use of closed kinetic chain exercise movements. By its design, the strength/power training program facilitated such demands, and the beneficial adaptations in power development were substantial (CMJ, 46% and SJ, 4%). Such adaptations were reflected by improved individual and team placements during NCAA competition. The improvements in exercise performance occurred as a result of the minimization of excessive mass gain and the promotion of muscular power development. Power orientated resistance training programs induce a neuromuscular adaptation conducive to improved rates of force development (), while at the same time minimizing excessive muscle hypertrophy. Because time is a limiting factor during the powerful muscle actions associated with gymnastics, conditioning for the sport must focus on the application of as much force as possible in the shortest period of time (4). This becomes especially important for experienced gymnasts such as the participants in this study, who can be regarded as already possessing baseline levels of strength from repetitively lifting their own body mass (4). Specificity of training plays a regulatory role in the body s adaptation to a training stimulus. Through specific strength/power training it is apparent that it becomes possible to increase the fat free mass necessary for increased force application, while concomitantly decreasing detrimental fat mass (7). In summary, relative power, or the power to bodyweight ratio, is regarded as a decisive factor influencing gymnastic performance (). Findings from years of tracking demonstrate that highly specific, power orientated resistance-training techniques have the capability to advance power development in highly trained elite women gymnasts. These changes are shown to be significantly greater than the force characteristics achieved using a nonspecific, fixed-weight training protocol, which is suggested to be a suboptimal approach to conditioning for these athletes. The influence that a strength and conditioning program has on gymnastic performance is therefore only optimized when developed specifically to meet the exact demands of competition. When a training regimen is used that does not provide progressive overload under the same muscle activation characteristics observed during competitive performance, the extent of adaptation that can be expected must be viewed as being submaximal. In addition, periodized training over the year is essential for optimal improvements. Indeed, an absence of rapid contractile parameters within a training program would indicate that athletes are not meeting their maximum potential for power enhancement (). These data indicate that acquisition of the whole body muscular power required for advanced gymnastics is only achieved when training protocols suitably replicate the muscle activation patterns observed in competition (i.e., closed kinetic chain exercises). Yet, both strength and power training must be addressed in any program. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS This study highlights the importance of specificity and, more importantly, the role power development using freeform closed kinetic chain exercises in the conditioning of women gymnasts. This will enhance the power capabilities with stabilization in space using the athlete s strength under conditions of a multi-dimensional spatial environment. When utilized correctly, strength/power training techniques can provide significantly greater adaptations in the power output of elite women gymnasts when compared to the focus on only the force portion of the power equation using only fixed-form weight programs. 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7 SPECIFICITY OF POWER TRAINING IN FEMALE GYMNASTS 07. LYTTLE, A.D, G.J. WILSON, AND K.J. OSTROWSKI. Enhancing performance: Maximal power versus combined weights and plyometric training. J. Strength Cond. Res. 0: MARX, J.O., N.A. RATAMESS, B.C. NINDL, L.A. GOTSHALK, J.S. VOLEK, K. DOHI, J.A. BUSH, A.L. GOMEZ, S.A. MAZZETTI, S.J. FLECK, K. HÄKKINEN, R.U. NEWTON, AND W.J. KRAEMER Lowvolume circuit versus high-volume periodized resistance training in women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. : MAZZETTI, S.A., W.J. KRAEMER, J.S. VOLEK, N.D. DUNCAN, N.A. RATAMESS, A.L. GOMEZ, R.U. NEWTON, K. HÄKKINEN, AND S.J. FLECK. The influence of direct supervision of resistance training on strength performance. Med. Science Sports Exerc. : NEWTON, R.U., W.J. KRAEMER, K. HÄKKINEN, B.J. HUMPHRIES, AND A.J. MURPHY. Kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activation during explosive upper body movements. J. Appl. Biomech. : O HAGAN, F.T, D.G. SALE, J.D. MACDOUGALL, AND S.H. GAR- NER. Responses to resistance training in young women and men. Int. J. Sports Med. 6: POLLQUIN, C. Training for improving relative strength. Sports : SANDS, W.A., R.C. IRVIN, AND J.A. MAJOR. Women s gymnastics: The time course of fitness acquisition. A -year study. J. Strength Cond. Res. 9: SCHMIDTBLEICHER, D. Training for power events. In Strength and Power in Sports and Exercise. P.V. Komi, ed. London: Blackwell Science Ltd, 99. pp STARON, R.S., M.J. LEONARDI, D.L. KARAPONDO, E.S. MALICKY, J.E. FALKEL, F.C. HAGERMAN, AND R.S. HIKIDA. Strength and skeletal muscle adaptations in heavy-resistance-trained women after detraining and retraining. J. Appl. Physiol. 70: STARON, R.S., E.S. MALICKY, M.J. LEONARDI, J.E. FALKEL, F.C. HAGERMAN, AND G.A. DUDLEY. Muscle hypertrophy and fast fiber type conversions in heavy resistance-trained women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 60: VERCRUYSSEN, M. Anthropometic profile of female gymnasts. In Sports Biomechanics: Proceedings of the International Symposium of Biomechanics in Sports. J. Terauds, K. Barthels, E. Kreighbaum, R. Mann, and J. Crakes, eds. Del Mar, CA: Academic, 94. pp. 6. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all of the dedicated women who participated in the study and the Coaches, Mr. Steve Shephard and Ms. Jessica Bastardi, for their unyielding support of this sport science project. In addition, we would like to thank all of the laboratory staff and trainers who worked with this project including Mr. Chad Loebel and Mr. Scott Mazzetti for their hard work in helping to train the women. We would also like to thank Mr. Dick Hartzell for donation of the Flex Bands (Mr. Dick Hartzell, Jump Stretch, Inc., Boardman, OH, 445), which complimented our power programs. Address correspondence to Dr. William J. Kraemer, William.Kraemer@uconn.edu.