UNIT. Enhancing physical performance

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1 UNIT 4 Enhancing physical performance OUTCOME 1 Plan and evaluate training programs to enhance physical fitness. OUTCOME 2 Evaluate practices and/or strategies that are used in conjunction with each other to enhance sports performance.

2 CHAPTER 5 Fitness components, muscles and activity analysis Fitness components are those aspects of fitness that should be performed to a reasonable level in any sport or recreational activity. They are not as important at a social level of activity involvement as at an elite level of competition. However, they are still required for safe and enjoyable activity, free from the risk of injury or low satisfaction levels. This chapter aims to define and illustrate each of the recognised fitness components. An understanding of these components will allow you to recognise their individual importance in any sport or activity, and to apply them with the correct emphasis in any sport. There are two groups of fitness components: those based on the actual physical qualities of the athlete, and those that combine mental and physical qualities. Closely linked with most fitness components is the body s muscular system. Knowing major muscle groups and muscle action, understanding basic muscle anatomy and recognising types of muscular contractions are important in the analysis of physical activity. Activity analysis forms an integral and primary role in developing appropriate fitness training schedules. Understanding the precise movement patterns, energy systems, muscular contractions, specific fitness components, work rest ratios, and skill movements, all determine the successful construction of a fitness program. 136 LIVE IT UP 2

3 Assessment tasks Task Topics Page Laboratory reports Aerobic power lab various tests (activity 1) Anaerobic power lab various tests (activity 2) Local muscle endurance tests (activity 6) Skill activity grid (activity 17) Media analyses Becoming a better bench coach (activity 15) KPIs and AFL (activity 16) The netball shuffle (activity 17) Written reports Anaerobic power (activity 3) Agility self-designed test (activity 7) Balance elite qualities (activity 8) Structured questions Muscle movements (activity 10) 156 Case study analyses Strength school-based assessment (activity 4) Weight-training session (activity 5) Muscle contractions in volleyball (activity 9) Data analyses Netball activity analysis (activity 12) AFL data collection and analysis (activity 13) High-level activity analysis (activity 14) CHAPTER 5 After completing this chapter, students should be able to: identify all fitness components, the major muscle groups and their actions, and the links between fitness components, the muscular system and activity analysis describe the roles that each of the fitness components plays in physical activity and the types of muscular contractions explain the links between activity analysis and fitness development analyse a variety of methods of activity analysis data collection outline ways to use collected data to create specific fitness programmes using all required fitness components. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 137

4 Physiological fitness components To analyse what is required for any team game, racquet sport or recreational activity, you need to recognise what aspects of physical fitness the performer requires to be able to last the length of the activity. Fitness is specific to performers needs; for example, fitness levels for professional golf are obviously quite different from fitness levels for professional tennis. Once participants know the specific fitness demands of a particular activity, they can physically prepare for the activity. They may also work on some of the desired skill components, depending on how the training program is structured. However, the primary aim of any athlete s training program must be for the individual to attain specific physical fitness components. Figure 5.1: Aerobic power is the combined efficiency of both the circulatory and respiratory systems. Aerobic power Aerobic power is the fitness of the heart, blood vessels and lungs that is, the fitness of the circulatory system and respiratory system. Figure 5.1 illustrates how these two systems work together to deliver oxygen to the working muscles. If these systems are highly trained, the athlete will be better able to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for the working muscles under aerobic conditions, and they will have increased capacity for efficiently replenishing the anaerobic systems during and/or after an extended performance in a team game or racquet sport. Aerobic power is of high importance in: team games such as netball, football, hockey, soccer, volleyball, water polo, basketball, lacrosse and rugby racquet sports such as tennis and squash extended athletic events such as the marathon, triathlons and crosscountry skiing. The body demands oxygen for each of the three energy systems: 1. phosphate 2. anaerobic glycolysis 3. aerobic. More efficient delivery of oxygen to the relevant areas of the body improves the performer s ability to participate in and recover from an activity. (Chapter 2 outlines the ways in which the three energy systems use oxygen). Individual capacities to deliver oxygen to the working muscles vary greatly, and they are a good indicator of personal and/or comparative fitness. A person s maximum oxygen uptake, or VO2 max (see chapter 2, page 75), is the usual measure of aerobic power. (Chapter 6 includes many tests for this measure). Ways of improving aerobic power During continuous training (a minimum of three sessions per week), keep the heart rate in the training zone for at least 20 minutes for each session. Participate in sports that offer the best aerobic activity, such as swimming, running and cycling. Join a local fitness centre that offers various forms of aerobic training, such as aerobics classes, super circuits, boxercise, spinning classes and pump circuits. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more detail on aerobic training.) 138 LIVE IT UP 2

5 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises designed to explore the assessment of fitness and the relationship between at least two training methods and gains to fitness. Activity 1 Laboratory report Aerobic power lab various tests As a class, undertake the multi-stage fitness test to predict each student s aerobic power. Then select some students to also undertake the Harvard step test. (See chapter 6, for details about both tests.) a What is the correlation between students aerobic power and their main sport? b What is the correlation between different aerobic power tests? c What variables may affect results? d How are the tests relevant to different sports? e Which of the three energy systems dominates at different stages of each test (see also chapter 2)? Anaerobic power Anaerobic power is the ability to produce energy quickly. This quick production does not depend on a supply of oxygen to the working muscles. The anaerobic energy system covers two types of effort: 1. maximal effort for around 10 seconds 2. near-maximal effort up to a limit of about 1 minute. These two energy systems are covered in detail in chapter 2. Anaerobic power is of high importance in: an elite-level, 100-metre men s sprint athletic field events such as the long jump, high jump, shotput, javelin, discus, pole vault and hammer throw basketball rebounds and blocks football long kicks and handballs netball sprints to position a 400-metre run a 50-metre sprint in swimming an uphill cycle for seconds in a triathlon. High levels of anaerobic power allow an individual to achieve explosive acceleration or power when it is needed in a game. The performer can also repeat these powerful movements as needed during an extended period of time, such as a one- or two-hour playing period in a team game. Further, if a longer, continuous effort is required for seconds, a player with high anaerobic power will perform well. Figure 5.2: Alex Sampi in action Australian Football is a fine example of a team sport that demands fitness across all the physiological fitness components. Ways of improving anaerobic power In sprint or high-level interval training (at least three times per week), keep the heart rate in the training zone for at least 20 minutes. Undertake metre interval running sprints, starting with a walk back recovery and progressing to a jog back recovery. Undertake metre running cruises, with the same progression in recovery as for sprints above. The same interval concept will produce anaerobic gains, when used for related sports such as cycling or swimming. Weight training can also improve anaerobic power. (See muscular power pages 142 3, and chapters 7 and 9 for more information on anaerobic training). CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 139

6 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 2 Laboratory report Anaerobic power lab various tests Examine the different levels of anaerobic power for students in your class. After a thorough warm-up, carry out the following anaerobic power tests: a standing long jump, 10-metre sprint, 60-metre sprint, 200-metre sprint and 400-metre run. Complete the tests using maximal effort, with at least 5 minutes recovery between each effort. a Graph the class results and link them to the sporting interests of each student. b Discuss the results and explain the links between the better performers and their preferred sport. c Do you think 5 minutes was an appropriate rest between efforts? d Outline some other anaerobic tests. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Figure 5.3: Nicki Hudson, current Australian Hockey captain, in full flight combining muscular strength and speed Activity 3 Anaerobic power Written report In groups of four, select one of the following team games each. List all the anaerobic power activities in each sport. Hockey Australian Football Netball Rugby Union Muscular strength Classically, muscular strength (MS) is a 1-RM (or one repetition maximum ) in weight-lifting that is, where the lifter can move the weight only once through the desired lift. 5-RM is the ability to lift the weight five times and no more; 12-RM is the ability to lift the weight 12 times and no more. Apart from weight lifting, this one-off maximal strength movement is used infrequently in competitive sport or recreation. However, it is not difficult to imagine muscles creating near-maximal efforts during sport participation. Muscular strength is of high importance in: pushing with seven team mates against eight opponents in a Rugby Union scrum gripping a hockey stick while making a driving shot at goal attempting a static hold against an opponent in wrestling leaning out to try to keep a boat upright while sailing. Muscular strength is usually present in conjunction with speed, when they combine to create muscular power. The main factors affecting muscular strength are summarised in table 5.1 opposite. Ways of improving muscular strength For individuals who have completed their skeletal growth, weight training with 5-RM or less results in significant strength gains. Individuals who are still growing (including everyone of school age) should avoid using fewer than five repetitions because this effort may damage growth plates in the long bones (see chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition). Weight training, following the power principles on pages 142 3, results in indirect gains to the strength fitness component. 140 LIVE IT UP 2

7 Table 5.1 Factors affecting muscular strength in the individual (learning acronym: SLAWFCS+J) Force (percentage of maximal isometric force) Arm flexor strength (kilograms) Velocity (percentage of maximum) Figure 5.4: As speed of contraction increases, the amount of force created decreases Male Female Cross-sectional area (square centimetres) Figure 5.5: As the cross-sectional area of muscle increases, the strength potential also rises. Elbow flexion 120 Factor Speed of muscle contraction Length of muscle fibre Effect on strength The more slowly a muscle contracts, the more force it can create (figure 5.4). Compare an isometric contraction (see page 155) with a powerful, isotonic contraction. A 1-RM weight lift is performed much more slowly than 12-RM movements, because it requires more strength. If the muscle is slightly stretched, it is in the best position to create its maximum force. This is demonstrated when long jumpers lower their centre of gravity just before take-off a movement that stretches the quadriceps just before they contract to achieve the powerful leap. Performers need to account for this fact along with the best joint angle specific to the particular joint around which the movement is centred. Age of the performer Strength peaks in performers aged years, then decreases with the body s diminishing ability to process protein. Regular exercise (see chapter 9, Live It Up 1, second edition) can slow this process. Warm-up Fibre type Cross-sectional area Warmed-up muscles have a greater ability to create strength than cold ones (see chapters 7 and 9). Fast-twitch (or white) fibres are capable of greater strength output than that of slowtwitch (or red) fibres (see chapter 4; and chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition). The larger the muscle, the greater the strength potential (figure 5.5). But this relates to the muscle mass, not the total body area in which the muscle is found. The diameter of the biceps, for example, may include both muscle and fat. Tension Lowest tension Angle of pull Greatest tension 180 Figure 5.6: The strength available as a joint moves depends on the angle of the joint. Sex of the performer Joint angle around the muscle Males generally have greater muscle mass, so they have greater absolute strength. Relative to the cross-sectional area of muscle, there is no difference in the strength available to males and females (see figure 5.5; and chapter 9, Live It Up 1, second edition). For each joint angle in movement there is an optimal angle for the creation of strength (figure 5.6). CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 141

8 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Key skill Evaluate a training program. Activity 4 Case study analysis Strength school-based assessment With a small group of friends, organise to attend a training session or game for one of your school 1st teams (e.g. cricket, netball, football, basketball). List and explain the players strength-based movements during the session. Figure 5.7 All top athletes depend on speed as a central fitness component. (Right) Kookaburras Nathan Englington (front) gets away from Erik Jazet, Australia v. Netherlands, 2004 Athens Olympics. (Below) Patrick Johnston takes a training run. Speed Speed can be present as whole-body speed where the aim is to move from point A to point B as fast as possible. It can also be present as part-body speed where one or more parts of the body require movement as quickly as possible to complete a movement. Speed is of high importance in: undertaking any sprint event in athletics (usually those of less than 200 metres) accelerating to create space or evade an opponent in team games releasing a javelin. Speed is often seen as the discriminating factor in team games when comparing elite performers with average ones. It enables performers to appear measured and relaxed when displaying the required skills in competition conditions. This ability often stems from possessing the speed to achieve the time or space in which to display those skills. Ways of improving speed Anaerobic power underpins speed. Useful anaerobic exercises are listed on page 139 and in chapters 7 and 9. Muscular power Muscular power is the combination of strength and speed. A powerful movement is achieved as quickly as possible, while imparting as much strength as possible. 142 LIVE IT UP 2

9 Power is of high importance in: field events such as shot-put, discus, javelin, high jump, long jump and hammer throw tackling in football or rugby a spike in volleyball a leaping intercept in netball or basketball a defensive clearance in hockey a drive or long fairway shot in golf. Power is central to successful performance in most sports where distance, height or any quick generation of force is important. It is difficult to think of many sports or recreational activities for which power is not needed. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 5 Weight-training session Case study analysis Organise a class practical session in a weight room. Work in pairs to perform a series of properly performed weight exercises where you move the weight at power reps of 8 12RM. The emphasis of this exercise is on finding the correct individual weight and correctly performing the exercises. a Name the weight exercises you performed, then sketch each exercise. (Stick figures are fine!) b Outline the importance of the speed of movement in power weight training. c List the safety guidelines for working in a weight room. d Discuss the benefits of using free weights, multi-stations or isokinetic machines. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more details.) Ways of improving muscular power Undertake weight training three times per week, with repetitions ranging between eight and twelve. Use a weight that you can lift or move quickly for these repetitions. Once you begin to use a weight that slows the speed of your movement, you have established the maximum number of repetitions for that exercise. Consider the option of plyometrics, an advanced training method for elite performers. Well-coached individuals can gradually work up to it. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more details.) Local muscular endurance Local muscular endurance is the ability of a particular muscle group to keep working at the desired level of effort for as long as the situation demands. It is often controlled by the body s tolerance of the increasing levels of lactic acid which the activity creates. Local muscular endurance is of high importance in: the arms in a 200-metre swim the legs in a marathon the arms, legs, abdominals and quadriceps in a 2000-metre rowing race the legs in a 1-kilometre time trial in cycling the abdominals in a 1-minute situp test. The inclusion of local in this term is important. All sports involve actions that emphasise specific groups of muscles rather than the whole body. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 143

10 The concept of time is also helpful in understanding this fitness component. Local muscular endurance is not a never-ending sporting task, but it does involve action that is prolonged enough to differentiate it from sprint or power events. Ways of improving local muscular endurance Any continuous training (see chapter 7) improves the specific muscle groups that require local muscular endurance. You can also adapt weight training to train for local muscular endurance. Specifically selected exercises should be trained with high repetitions, starting at about 20 repetitions and progressing higher as the sport movement demands. Rowers training for a 2000-metre race will work with lower repetitions than those of a triathlete who is building endurance in arms and legs for the three disciplines. Figure 5.8: Australia s Sharelle McMahon, Australia v. South Africa, March All team games require local muscular endurance. The Australian Netball Team illustrates the effort needed, particularly in the arms, legs and abdominals. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 6 Local muscle endurance tests Laboratory report a As a class, thoroughly warm up and stretch. Then undertake a local muscle endurance test: 3-minute push ups following the ACHPER sit up cadence tape bench jumps in 60 seconds the ACHPER sit up test. (See chapter 6 for more details.) b Present the collected data in tables and graphs. c Examine the varying results and their reasons in a class discussion. Flexibility Flexibility is the body s ability to gain the range of movement that is demanded by a particular sport or activity. It is the interaction between the body s skeletal and muscular systems to allow a full and unimpeded range of joint movement. Flexibility is of high importance in: gymnastic events such as the Roman rings, uneven bars, parallel bars, floor routines, pommel horse and the beam goalkeeping in hockey competitive aerobics a defensive shuffle in netball and basketball playing short stop or catcher in softball or baseball. The main factors affecting flexibility are summarised in table 5.2 on page 146. Flexibility is essential to all sports and recreational activities, so it must be an integral part of all fitness training programs. It is a specific fitness for the sport or activity, because some sports require more flexibility of more body 144 LIVE IT UP 2

11 parts than do others. Flexibility may be dynamic or static, as in moving or stationary. Generally it is needed in a dynamic way, and it is often combined with speed to create agility. Figure 5.9: Static stretches are the most commonly used and the safest method of improving flexibility. Ways of improving flexibility Sports scientists now agree that flexibility training is best done when the body is fully warmed up. This state is generally achieved at the end of a training session or competition. Some preliminary, careful and partial stretches may be done before activity, but these are more for psychological preparation than aiming to improve flexibility. Some of the methods used to improve flexibility are described below. Static stretching is considered the safest method. Stretch the muscles with the joint as far as comfortably possible and hold the position for seconds (figure 5.9). Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF stretching) may also be used by advanced athletes. The simplest way to perform PNF stretching is to first place the muscle in a static stretch position, with your partner in position (figure 5.10 on the following page). Isometrically contract the muscle for about 6 10 seconds against partner resistance, then statically stretch the same muscle for seconds with careful partner assistance providing an increased stretch position. Ballistic stretching is possibly dangerous to the inexperienced performer, but it is often used as an on-ground warm-up in team sports for example, going through the kicking action in football or soccer, or throwing a cricket ball or netball in a team warm-up session. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more detail.) CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 145

12 Table 5.2 Factors affecting flexibility (learning acronym: SSSSTRAWLB) Factor Specific sport and joint flexibility Somatotype Skin resistance Sex Type of joint (see chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition) Resting length of ligaments and joint capsule Age Warm-up Length of muscles at rest Bone Effect on flexibility Flexibility importance differs from one sport to the next for example, gymnastics requires much more all-round flexibility than does rowing. Endomorphs with their extra bulk (from extra adipose tissue) have limited flexibility. Mesomorphs also may have limited flexibility because they have trained with a limited range of movement or because they have extra muscle tissue. Ectomorphs generally have quite good flexibility because they have lower amounts of body tissue. Skin has lower elasticity than that of ligaments and tendons, so it can restrict higher ranges of movement. Hormonal differences mean that females are generally more flexible than males. Specific joints are designed for either strength or mobility, or a combination of each. The shoulder has great mobility but is prone to dislocation in contact sports. The hip joint has high stability, but less mobility than that of the shoulder. Stretching these surrounding structures in training may increase a joint s flexibility. Increasing age decreases flexibility. Warm-up routines generally increase the temperature of both the muscles and the structures within the joints, increasing flexibility. If muscles at rest are shortened, then flexibility is limited. This may happen if the individual has too much sedentary work (which chronically shortens the hamstrings). If weight-training exercises are not performed through the full range of motion, then the muscles will shorten. Depending on the joint, the bone type and structure will vary and thus have different effects on the actual flexibility of the joint. Figure 5.10: PNF stretches are best done in pairs and by athletes who know what they are doing. 146 LIVE IT UP 2

13 Agility Agility combines speed with flexibility and dynamic balance, allowing the performer to change direction with maximal speed and control. Agility is of high importance in: evading an opponent in soccer or rugby reacting to an opponent s baulk in hockey dribbling the ball around opponents in soccer or basketball changing direction during a dance, gymnastics or aerobics sequence moving to make a play in squash while avoiding the opponent. Agility is one of the physiological fitness components that visibly illustrates some of the neuromuscular fitness component qualities. An amount of coordination is required to demonstrate good agility, but agility involves enough emphasis on speed and flexibility to argue for its inclusion in this section. Both planned or unplanned (reactive) movements can demonstrate agility, as long as they emphasise the ability to change direction quickly and efficiently (see also the article in figure 5.24, page 171). Reactive agility is a term more frequently used in reference to team games, where there is rarely any planned agility. Ways of improving agility Specific agility courses designed by the coach can replicate the movement patterns and distances in a game. Frequently re-test team members in recognised tests such as the Illinois and Semo agility tests (see chapter 6). Regular sprint interval training and adequate specific stretching are the two key ingredients of agility. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 7 Agility self-designed test Written report Select a favourite team game and design an agility test which specifically represents the game s movement patterns. Suggestions include: Netball: a centre player s first 5 seconds of movement following a centre pass Australian Football: an on-baller s first 5 seconds of movement following a centre bounce Hockey: the inside-right s movement as the team makes an attacking break from defence. Neuromuscular fitness components The term neuromuscular refers to the interplay of the nervous and muscular systems. Neuromuscular fitness influences a players ability, for example, to control a gradual or sudden shift in balance, to react quickly to changing circumstances and/or to efficiently co-ordinate a series of movements. Balance Balance is the ability of the body to remain in a state of equilibrium while performing a desired task. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 147

14 There are two recognised types: dynamic balance, which involves keeping the body s balance under control while moving static balance, which involves keeping the body s balance under control while not moving. Balance is of high importance in: running a bend in a 200-metre athletic race sprinting down the sideline in a Rugby Union game performing a 60-second aerobics routine performing a handstand in a gymnastics routine standing on one foot while shooting at the goal in netball. Balance is one of the discriminating characteristics of elite and average performers. Watch a 200-metre sprint in athletics, especially as the runners come around the bend. Sprinters run at varying distances from the inside line of their lanes, and their accompanying control of style, balance and speed ultimately contributes to their success at the finish. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 8 Balance elite qualities Written report List five more examples of dynamic and static balance from different sports. Select five from the ten examples (those in the text above and those you have listed) and outline how you could distinguish an average performer from an elite performer in each situation. Ways of improving balance Weight training specific to a sport will improve the strength of muscles that act as synergists in any required movement for that sport. Synergists are muscles that help complete a movement, but are not the initiators (or prime movers ) of that movement. Repetitively practising the required movements will strengthen the neurone controls of the muscles involved and therefore improve the overall balance of the movement. Reaction time Reaction time is the speed with which an individual can react to an outside stimulus. The average reaction time is 0.2 second. It is the ability of the brain to react to various outside input sources, process them, select a response, then activate the expected muscular response. Reaction time is of high importance in: reacting to the starter s gun in a sprint race deciding which player is in the best position to receive a pass in basketball judging the probable direction of the ball from an opponent s back swing in tennis. The performer with the better reaction time is usually the dominant player who appears controlled, rarely flustered and usually able to impart maximum force to a desired movement. Faster reactions allow the performer to be well positioned at the critical moments. Performers can improve their reaction time with specific training. 148 LIVE IT UP 2

15 Ways of improving reaction time Practise sprint starts for races. During practice sessions, decrease the normal length of certain movements in a game, for example, shorter kicks, passes, cricket bowls, baseball pitches. Play with a fast squash ball instead of a slow one. Coordination Coordination is the ability to link together a series of muscular movements so they appear to be well controlled and efficiently executed. Coordination is of high importance in: dance, aerobics and ballet discus throwing hitting a cover drive for four in cricket scoring from a netball shot spiking in volleyball all routines in gymnastics. It is difficult to contemplate any activity that does not require coordination to some extent. We tend to take for granted our ability to connect a number of closely or loosely linked movements, which result in varying degrees of expertise. A real awareness of the diversity of life comes from learning to appreciate how limited life can be without this ability. Ways of improving coordination Practise the relevant movements for the particular sports, beginning with those more basic to the activity and progressing to more complicated movements. The muscular system To be able to link knowledge of fitness components with a thorough activity analysis, students need a working knowledge of the body s muscular system. There are over six hundred muscles in the human body that allow everyday activities such as running, jumping and brushing your teeth. Muscles vary in their sizes and functions; some are responsible for maintaining the body s posture, some for providing force to produce movement, and some for helping in important bodily functions such as blood circulation, breathing and digestion. Most muscles have certain common features: Nervous control. Nerve stimuli control muscle action. Extensibility. Muscles have the capacity to stretch when a force is applied. Elasticity. Muscles can return to their original size once stretched. Atrophy. Muscles can decrease in size as a result of injury, illness or lack of exercise. Hypertrophy. Muscles can increase in size with an increase in activity. Types of muscle Muscles can be classified into three main groups: smooth, cardiac and skeletal. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle is found in hollow organs such as the walls of the digestive tract, the bladder and the blood vessels. You have no conscious control over their contractions (thus called involuntary ), which are slow, CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 149

16 sustained and rhythmic. The contractions of the smooth muscle in the intestinal walls and stomach, for example, move food through the digestive tract. Such muscles fatigue more slowly than skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. The muscle fibres are intertwined, which helps the heart push blood into arteries going to the lungs and other body tissues. The heart is an involuntary muscle (although some people claim that they can make their heart beat faster or slower at will) and it is difficult to fatigue. When a nerve impulse arrives at the heart, the message is relayed from cell to cell, causing rhythmic contractions and relaxations. Figure 5.11: Skeletal muscle fibres viewed through a light microscope Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle attaches to and causes movement of the skeleton. It is striated (that is, has a striped appearance) and under voluntary control (because you are consciously aware of the muscles and you can control their contractions). The movements may also take part in reflex actions, such as a knee-jerk reaction. If you want to throw a netball or kick a soccer ball, your brain sends a message to the muscles concerned and the required physical action results. Given that skeletal muscle is responsible for human movement, we will focus on this muscle type in the following sections. Initiation of muscular activity Motor units A motor unit consists of the motor nerve plus the muscle fibres it stimulates. (Each nerve may stimulate a number of muscle fibres.) The number of fibres within each motor unit varies according to the precision of the movement required. Generally, muscles such as those in your hand that perform precise, controlled movements such as writing, typing or throwing darts have small motor units, where one motor neuron may be responsible for stimulating only a few fibres. Muscles such as the quadriceps that perform gross movements such as running or kicking a ball have large motor units, where one motor neuron may stimulate thousands of fibres. 150 LIVE IT UP 2

17 Cell body of neuron A Strength of muscular contraction Skeletal muscles can generate a range of contractions varying from strong maximal contractions to complete relaxation. However, for a contraction to occur, there must be a strong enough nerve impulse to innervate the muscle fibres. A Muscle fibres Spinal cord Figure 5.12: Diagram of two motor units. Neuron A stimulates three muscle fibres, while neuron B stimulates only two. B Motor endplate of neuron B The all or nothing principle The all or nothing principle states that the nerve impulse will not stimulate the muscle fibres until it reaches a certain threshold level. Once the nerve impulse reaches this threshold, all fibres of the motor unit will contract at the same time and maximally. If the impulse is too weak, no fibres will contract at all. However, the intensity of muscular contractions can vary in two ways: 1. by varying the number of motor units stimulated. Not all the motor units within a muscle need to be recruited at one time for a muscle contraction. If you require a large degree of strength for example, lifting a heavy weight then more nerve impulses are sent, activating more motor units and therefore contracting more muscle fibres. If you require a minimal degree of strength for example, putting a golf ball then fewer impulses are sent, contracting fewer fibres. 2. by varying the frequency at which the impulses arrive at the motor unit. The greater the frequency of nerve impulses, the greater the contractions in the muscle. If you require a large degree of strength for example, for performing a vertical jump the impulse will be sent at a faster rate to the muscles involved. The stretch reflex The muscle spindle detects any sudden lengthening of a muscle, then activates the sensory nerves. Motor units are thus activated, causing an almost immediate contraction of the muscle to resist any further lengthening. This stretch reflex prevents muscular and tendon injury which might have occurred. Information about this reflex can assist performance in certain sporting situations. When performing a jump upwards, for example, athletes usually dip downwards just before the jump. The speed of the initial movement causes a sudden stretch in the quadriceps muscle and initiates the stretch reflex. This causes a reflex contraction in the quadriceps, which may increase the force developed to produce a higher jump. A similar movement can aid the long-jump take-off. Major skeletal muscles To be able to study body movements, it is important to identify the positions and actions of the major muscle groups of the body (figures 5.13 and 5.14). Muscles are usually named from their various characteristics or locations, for example: the triceps, which has three points of origin; the pectoralis major, which is a large (major) muscle of the chest or pectoral region; and the quadriceps femoris, which consists of four separate muscles anterior to the femur. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 151

18 Trapezius Deltoid Teres minor Trapezius Triceps brachii (long head) Deltoid Teres major Latissimus dorsi Pectoralis major Triceps brachii (lateral head) Latissimus dorsi Serratus anterior Triceps Brachioradialis brachii Biceps brachii Brachioradialis Brachialis Obliques Obliques Wrist extensors Rectus abdominis Wrist flexors Gluteus maximus Sartorius Gastrocnemius Tibia Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis Quadriceps femoris Patella Adductors Gracilis Tibialis anterior Iliopsoas Hamstrings Iliotibial band Adductors Gracilis Biceps femoris (long head) Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Gastrocnemius Soleus Soleus Figure 5.14: Muscles of the human body posterior view Achilles tendon Figure 5.13: Muscles of the human body anterior view Muscle action Skeletal muscles produce movement by exerting a pulling force on bones. They have a more rigid attachment to a bone at one end, and they are attached across a joint to another bone that is usually more moveable. The muscle s point of attachment to the more stationary bone is called the origin (often called the fixed end ) and tends to be closer (or more proximal) to the main mass of the body. The origin of a muscle is often quite widespread because it helps anchor the muscle. The muscle s more moveable point of attachment is called the insertion (the moving end ) and tends to be located away (or more distal) from the mass of the body. It usually attaches to the bone near the joint that is to be moved by the muscle, and adheres in most cases by means of a strong non-elastic tendon. 152 LIVE IT UP 2

19 Figure 5.15 (a) and (b): (Left) Trapezius muscle (Right) Deltoid muscle When a muscle contracts, the origin and insertion are drawn together, shortening the muscle. The bones attached to the muscle produce movement in a specific direction. This movement is called the muscle s action; for example, the action of raising your arm by your side (abduction) is caused by the contraction of the deltoid muscle, where the insertion of the muscle at the humerus moves towards the muscle s origin at the scapula. Insertion (Scapula) Origin Origin (Clavicle) Origin Insertion Muscle control Skeletal muscles can only pull to produce movement; they cannot push. They pull by working in pairs or groups that is, as a muscle contracts on the front side of the body (anterior), usually the muscles at the back (posterior) with the opposite action relax. During a particular movement, a muscle performs one of the following four roles: agonist (or prime mover). This muscle causes the major action. There is usually more than one prime mover in a joint action, and there are prime mover muscles for all moveable joints. antagonist. This muscle must relax and lengthen to allow a movement to occur. It causes an opposite action to that caused by the agonist. Generally, muscle flexors and extensors work in an agonist antagonist relationship: for example, when a person bends their elbow the flexor (biceps) is the agonist while the extensor (triceps) is the antagonist. These roles can be reversed; for example, when a person straightens their elbow (as when serving in tennis), the extensor (triceps) is the agonist while the flexor (biceps) is the antagonist. This pairing of actions can also be seen with other movements such as adduction and abduction. synergist (or assistant). This muscle assists the agonist to produce the required movement to reduce any excessive or unnecessary movements. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 153

20 During elbow flexion, for example, the biceps is the agonist and it is assisted by the brachialis and brachioradialis. stabiliser (or fixator). These muscles ensure that the joint remains stable while the agonist and antagonists are working. The muscle will shorten just slightly during contraction, causing only minimal movement to allow the action to be performed more effectively. When someone shoots a goal in netball, for example, the abdominals and the erector spinae muscles contract to stabilise the body and to enable the arms and shoulders to perform the skill. Figure 5.16: Reciprocal inhibition when one muscle is contracting, the opposite muscle in the pair is relaxing Biceps relaxed Biceps contracts, elbow bends Triceps contracts, elbow straightens Triceps relaxed Coordinated movement The process of the agonist muscle contracting and its opposing muscle, the antagonist, relaxing is called reciprocal inhibition (figure 5.16). Efficient movement involves a process of give and take on each side of the joint. When you perform major movements such as kicking a soccer ball, a coordinated sequence of these muscle actions must occur. This depends on the nervous system, because the muscles need to be stimulated to contract in the proper sequence with exact timing and with the most appropriate degree of force to provide a smooth, controlled movement. This is why beginners at a task often appear jerky for example, either overhitting or underhitting a ball. Types of muscle contraction Muscle contractions are classified according to the movement they cause. There are three types of contraction: isotonic, isometric and isokinetic. 154 LIVE IT UP 2

21 Isotonic An isotonic contraction one in which the muscle length changes throughout the range of movement as force is being developed is the most common. Examples include: pushups kicking throwing most sporting movements. situps There are two types of isotonic contraction: 1. concentric. The muscle length shortens during the contraction for example, the biceps curl where the bicep muscle shortens to lift the dumbbell from the straight arm position. 2. eccentric. The muscle lengthens while the force is developed. This occurs in activities that resist gravity, and it will slow the limb or trunk movement for example, lowering the body during a situp, lowering the body during a squat or even gently setting down an object. The process is similar to a drawbridge, where the bridge must be lowered in control while working against the effect of gravity. Isotonic training is effective because you can easily adapt activities to resemble exact sporting movements. The disadvantage of this type of training is that the benefits occur at the weakest points in a muscle s range of motion, so the entire range is not trained to its full extent. Latest studies indicate that eccentric contractions have significant value in training and injury prevention. Isometric An isometric contraction occurs when force is developed, but there is no change in the length of the muscle. Examples include gripping a cricket bat (with the forearm muscles performing an isometric contraction) and holding a weight in a stationary position. When training for an isometric activity, it is important to train the muscle at many different joint angles so strength can be developed for a wide range of motion. A major disadvantage of this type of training is that it increases blood pressure because the heart has to pump with more force to move blood through constricted blood vessels. This may be dangerous because it can stress your circulatory system. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 9 Muscle contractions in volleyball Case study analysis Even simply holding your textbook involves types of muscle contraction (see example below). Play a game of volleyball. Identify two activities in the game that involve performing the following contractions: a isometric contractions b concentric contractions c eccentric contractions. Example Pick up a textbook from the table. This is an example of a concentric contraction of your biceps muscle. Hold the textbook out in front of you for 3 seconds. This is an example of an isometric contraction of your biceps muscle. Slowly lower the textbook onto the table. This is an example of an eccentric contraction of your biceps muscle. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 155

22 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis including skills analysis, work rest ratios, movement patterns, muscle groups and muscle action Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 10 Muscle movements Structured questions Work in a group of three to undertake the following tasks. a Demonstrate three sporting examples of uses of isotonic movements. Outline the major muscle group(s) performing the contraction in each example, and nominate whether the contraction is eccentric or concentric. b Demonstrate three sporting examples of uses of isometric movements. Outline the major muscle group(s) performing the contraction in each example. Isokinetic An isokinetic contraction develops maximal velocity throughout the entire range of motion. Highly specialised equipment, such as Hydra gym or Cybex machines, is required to perform these contractions. The amount of force applied by these machines always equals the amount of force applied by the muscle, so it is possible to develop strength through a muscle s entire range of motion. Thus isokinetic contractions are considered to be the most effective way to develop strength and endurance. Activity analysis and its use Activity analysis enables coaches and performers to make the important link between training and the actual performance of an activity. The principle of specificity is the key to activity analysis (see chapter 7) that is, such analysis helps performers gain specific knowledge about: energy system requirements movement patterns, type and direction muscle groups and muscle action work and rest patterns and ratios skill requirements team strategies opponents strengths and weaknesses biomechanical techniques the intensity of movement and the actions performed. Team sports and individual sports of an intermittent nature are most suited to analysis. Analysis of continuous activities such as middle-distance and long-distance running, road cycling, rowing and swimming is limited to the measurement of heart rates and intensities. This is best done using electronic heart-rate monitoring equipment called telemetry. Methods used to analyse activity Analysis methods vary from simple observation to heart-rate telemetry and lactic acid readings using blood samples. Simple observation The coach or interested party views the player or team from the sideline. All gathered information is subjective and may include: how they move around the playing area where they move to 156 LIVE IT UP 2

23 the intensity of their sprint or playing the frequency of particular skill movements, such as backhand tennis shots the muscle groups that need strengthening the team plays that are in use, and so on. There are no supportive data for observed information, which is all merely one person s point of view. Observation with supporting statistical records Statistical data can be recorded live and analysed later, or gathered and analysed after the game event from video recordings. The use of video is the preferred method because the coach and athlete can replay, slow and freezeframe the images. Heart-rate monitoring Manual monitoring of the athlete s heart rate is possible during rest periods to indicate the intensity of the athlete s effort and work. However, electronic telemetry (using a strap-on heart-rate monitor) is much more effective because it gives a constant reading of the heart-rate response throughout the entire period of the analysis. More sophisticated monitors record all the heartrate data, which can be downloaded when the analysis period is complete. These are used for detailed analysis of work intensities and lengths of rest periods. Statistical analysis techniques Analysis of a player s performance covers four key areas: 1. skill analysis 2. work rest ratios 3. movement patterns 4. muscle groups and muscle action. Each area provides valuable and specific information about the game and the player s participation. Skill analysis Skill analysis requires the use of a table or grid similar to the one below. This grid has been developed for tennis. Skill analysis data should be used to provide positive feedback and to foster continued improvement in performance. The analysis is particularly important for identifying the muscle groups used in performing each skill. If using a recording grid, add a column for notes about muscle use during the observation period. Shot First game Second game Third game Fourth game Fifth game First serve Second serve Forehand Backhand Backhand volley Forehand volley Smash Performance time successful shot; = unsuccessful shot; A = service ace CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 157

24 You should be able to use the data to work out the percentage of first correct serves, the percentage of errors for all shots played (for example, successful forehand hits compared with forehand errors), any change in the style of shots, and any change in the error rate between games or sets (or the beginning or end of the match, for example). Skill analysis may provide information about: possessions offensive plays disposals defensive plays errors types of passes winners types of catches/mark goals shots played tackles successful plays shots for goal other. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 11 Skill activity grid Laboratory report 1 Develop a skill-analysis grid for a sport or activity of your choice. (Team games are best suited to this activity.) 2 Use this grid to record data for an individual athlete. You may undertake the analysis at school or a venue of your choice on the weekend, and you may make a live recording or use a video recording. If using a video, keep the athlete in view at all times. 3 Provide a written summary of your findings, including data on: (a) the total number of skills performed (b) the success rate of skills performed (c) the intensity rate of skills performed (d) the amount of time spent performing each skill (e) recommendations for practice and training. 158 LIVE IT UP 2

25 Table 5.3 Match summary, Australian Open 1999 Source: Herald & Weekly Times, 21 January, 1999, p. 92 Table 5.4 Typical intensity levels for elite netballers expressed as a percentage of total playing time The summary in table 5.3 illustrates one way of presenting skill analysis. M. PHILIPPOUSSIS (Australia) M. CHANG (USA) Men s singles Round 2 Elapsed time by set/(minutes) M. Philippoussis M. Chang 1st serve 64 % 53 % Aces Double faults 2 5 1st serve points 81 % 73 % 2nd serve points 55 % 57 % Winners (including serve) Unforced errors Break point (conversions) 33 % 50 % Net approaches 67 % 74 % Total points won Work rest ratios Data about work and rest periods are vital in determining an athlete s energy systems and intensity of effort. Games analysis calculates work rest ratios which provide information that should underpin decisions about methods of training, work intervals and rest intervals. To determine work rest ratios, standing still, walking and slow jogging may be classified as rest, while all other movements may be work. Record all work efforts on one stopwatch and all rest periods on another stopwatch. Once the activity is complete, you have a work rest ratio for example, for 5 minutes total work and 20 minutes total rest, the ratio is 5:20 or 1:4. Also note the intensity of the work efforts because this information is important in determining energy system requirements. Ideally, you could use a heart rate monitor to determine the intensities of each effort or work period, expressing the recorded heart rate as a percentage of the athlete s maximum heart rate. Table 5.4 shows typical intensity levels for elite netballers as determined by their working heart rates. Position Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Total Goal attack Wing attack Wing defence Centre Zone 1 = rest/recovery at less than 75 per cent of the maximum heart rate Zone 2 = aerobic work at per cent of the maximum heart rate Zone 3 = anaerobic lactic acid at per cent of the maximum heart rate Zone 4 = anaerobic adenosine triphosphate production at greater than 95 per cent of the maximum heart rate. CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 159

26 When analysing work and rest data, determine the following information: total work time and total rest time average work time per effort and average rest time longest work time and longest rest time the work rest ratio. Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 12 Netball activity analysis Data analysis Examine table 5.4 and answer the following questions. a Which position in netball is the most demanding anaerobically? Give two reasons to support your answer. b Why does the centre player spend 20 per cent of game time in the least intense zone? c What energy systems are used in netball? How do they interrelate? d What method of training would be most suitable for a goal attack? Movement patterns Movement patterns reveal typical locomotor activities completed during a game or performance of an activity. Movement patterns enable the coach or player to determine the fitness components that are used, and they provide (along with work rest ratios and skill analysis) the specific information required to develop training programs relevant to the player or team. To complete a movement pattern analysis, undertake the following steps: 1. Prepare a movement pattern sheet showing the playing area drawn to scale. 2. Photocopy approximately ten sheets on graph paper. Use one sheet for every 2 3 minutes of observation, or one sheet for every two points in tennis, badminton and so on. 3. Use the movement pattern sheets to record all player movements for the designated time frame (20 minutes of activity minimum). Decide on a key or code for each type of movement and skill to enable ease of recording. Examples of various coding terms are provided below. Figures 5.18 and 5.19 opposite illustrate how these codes can be applied to a typical movement pattern in tennis. Sprinting Cruising = = = = = Mark M Tackle T Shepherd S Guarding G Backward movement B Sideway movement SI Running... Walking ~~~~~~ Kick K Punch P Jumping J Shuffling SH Rebound R Jump shot JS 160 LIVE IT UP 2

27 Legend Figure 5.18 (left): A typical movement pattern recorded for tennis at the elite level Scale Figure 5.19 (below): A typical movement recording for an on ball player during 2 minutes in a game of Australian Football Legend T M S K H S H H M K T Figure 5.17: Alicia Molik in action at the Australian Open, 2005 CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 161

28 4. Transfer the data plotted on the movement pattern sheets to suitable tables that will assist the collation and summary of data. The table below is an example of how to record and summarise the distance covered for each movement type. Movement 5-metre effort 10-metre effort 15-metre effort 20-metre effort Total Sprinting Cruising Jogging Walking Information recorded in such a table may help determine: the number of efforts over each distance the total distance covered in each movement category the average distance covered in each effort. You can also develop tables for summarising information about the intensity of effort and direction changes. The information on sports performance indicators in the box below and in figure 5.20 comes from GPSports Systems. The data in figure 5.20 has been collected by GPSports Systems and follows an AFL player s movements for roughly one quarter of a practice match in March The Sport Performance Indicator (SPI 10) The SPI 10 (Pronounced SPY ) is a world first in miniaturised tracking technology for athletes and fitness enthusiasts alike. GPSports has developed the SPI 10, a miniature device worn by the athlete, which stores important training and performance data such as: Time Speed Distance Position Altitude Direction Heart rate. GPSports Analyser Software The Analyser program is a Microsoft Windows based product that can capture the data stored by the SPI 10 allowing the user to: Store multiple sessions (database) View speed and heart-rate performance throughout the entire session View the actual path taken during the session Generate multiple graphs and reports (totally configurable) Instantly determine the total time and distance spent in different speed zones Instantly determine the total time spent in different heart-rate zones... SPI 10 technology is based around GPS (Global Positioning Satellite) technology and at 11 cm by 5 cm by 3 cm, and only approximately 110 g, the SPI 10 will be the world s smallest hand-held GPS receiver. The SPI 10 technology involves a 1 Hertz GPS chip (data collection once per second). Updates... include a once every 2-second data collection rate. There is potential for software upgrades to the SPI 10 allowing the user to upload training programs, new software programs, and the ability to be able to link in peripheral devices such as cadence, stroke rate, temperature, relative humidity and barometer devices. The Sport Performance Indicator Personal Coach (SPI-PC) The SPI PC is the latest in the supply of functional technology by GPSports for our sporting clients. This unit, while similar to the SPI 10, has been scaled down in functionality for availability to the general consumer... Source: GPSports Systems Pty Ltd 162 LIVE IT UP 2

29 Figure 5.20: Collected AFL activity data from one game s quarter in 2004 Distance Distance within Speed Zone Speed Heart Rate Splits by Time Splits by Distance Compare km/h 4.0 km/h m 9.4% km/h 12.0 km/h 14.0 km/h 18.0 km/h 20.0 km/h 12.0 km/h 14.0 km/h 18.0 km/h 20.0 km/h 30.0 km/h m m m m m 39.7% 11.5% 18.6% 4.2% 16.6% % of Distance within Speed Zone 39.7% % of Distance within Speed Zone 18.6% 16.6% 11.5% 9.4% 4.2% Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 To view more collected AFL activity data, go to www. jaconline.com.au/liveitup/ book2 and click on the Heartbeat versus time graph and GPSports Systems links Time within Heart Rate Zone 90 bpm 120 bpm 150 bpm 165 bpm 170 bpm 300 bpm 00:05:32 00:00:39 00:07:52 00:03:23 00:01:02 00:05: % 2.8% 33.4% 14.4% 4.4% 21.6% Source: GPSports Systems Pty Ltd Heart Rate Zone Exertion Total Exertion CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 163

30 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 13 Data analysis AFL data collection and analysis Read the information on sports performance indicators (SPIs) on page 162 and consider the AFL data in figure Then answer the following questions: a What advantages does the GPSports Systems technology have over older data collection methods? b Examine the specific benefits of these extra records of player responses when compared with older activity-analysis technology. c Examine the graphs and tables in figure Establish the relative value of each in determining the player s exertion levels during the game. d Calculate the work rest ratio of the player. Discuss with the class the criteria you used. e GPSports defines any run faster than 20 kilometres per hour as a sprint. What percentage of the game time was spent doing this? f If the player is 20 years old, calculate his maximum heart rate (MHR). Also calculate how much time he spent above his probable lactate threshold. g How far did the player travel during the data collection period? h What percentage of this distance did he sprint? i After you study methods of training in chapter 7, how would this GPSports data translate to the design of an Interval Training program? Muscle groups and muscle action Muscle-use analysis is often neglected. It must be done in isolation from data gathering because it relies on subjective observation. When viewing the player, make notes about: the major muscles or muscle groups most used which main muscle groups are used early in the match, and whether they are different from those used later in the match whether the muscle action is isotonic or isometric (and if isotonic, whether the contraction is concentric or eccentric) whether the muscle contraction is powerful and fast, or slow and repeated whether muscle strength or muscle endurance is most important what range of motion and flexibility is exhibited. It is important to link muscle groups to the skills performed in the game. Using a video for activity analysis The most convenient and accurate way to collect data is to video record the performer. You can record some sports from the television because the player remains in frame at all times for example, tennis, squash, volleyball, table tennis and badminton. To analyse team sports such as soccer, basketball, Australian Football, netball, hockey and Rugby Union, focus on one player when recording original video footage at the actual game venue. Ensure the video camera is situated high in the stands, and film with a wide angle lens. You will then be able to track the movement of the player with reference to the field or court markings. 164 LIVE IT UP 2

31 Key knowledge Fitness components and definitions Data collection activity analysis Key skill Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises. Activity 14 High-level activity analysis Data analysis With a friend, attend a team game of your choice (one of the highest level possible). Have blank playing area sheets with relevant codes for recording game movements. a Make an activity analysis record over 20 minutes of play for a selected player. b Create processed data from this primary data, displaying a record of how the player used each of the fitness components. (You could also attempt this analysis by videotaping a selected player.) c Which components of fitness are most used in the selected activity? Explain your answer. d Which energy system is most important? Why? e Describe the role(s) of play for the performer you analysed. f What training methods should this player use? g Consider the following points in your games analysis: Is the muscular activity maximal (strength) or sub-maximal (endurance)? Is the speed of muscular contraction important (muscular power)? Is the contraction isotonic or isometric? Does the activity depend on a full range of movement (flexibility)? Is the quickness of movement important (speed, agility, muscular coordination)? What skills are required? How much of the following is involved: jumping sideways and or backwards movement sprinting, jogging and/or walking? How many direction changes are required? How often do they occur? The answers to the following questions determine the components of fitness and muscular actions. Is the sport continuous or intermittent? What is the duration and intensity of the work interval? Is there a recovery period? If so, for how long? Are the skills performed maximally? How often? The answer to this question determines which energy system is involved. What muscle groups are used? What muscle actions? CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS 165

32 Being a good games coach The ability to analyse a game s progress during actual competition is a challenging skill. Being aware of different aspects of the whole playing environment is generally beyond your average under-age coach and is the main reason why so much money is spent on acquiring the best coaches at the elite levels of competition. Actual playing experience Having actually played the game is central, but not essential, for good coaching. The ability to read the plays and predict probable outcomes leads to the best outcomes for both players and the club community. Statistical records This is useful background to attempt to predict a game s outcome, but will not be available at the exact moments during the game when they may be needed. Modern technology is providing some data during play, but this still lags behind the immediate moment. Pre-game spying Most top coaches have opponents closely analysed before competition. They do this while knowing that the same is being done to their players. Post-match analysis This remains a critical component of a thorough games analysis. However, it is also the component that is often omitted or not done thoroughly enough. The article opposite examines the concept of becoming a better bench coach. Figure 5.21: Essendon AFL coach Kevin Sheedy in He said watching from the bench gave him a better perspective on the game. 166 LIVE IT UP 2

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