Lecture 10. Circulatory systems; flow dynamics, flow regulation in response to environmental and internal conditions.
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1 Lecture 10 Circulatory systems; flow dynamics, flow regulation in response to environmental and internal conditions Professor Simchon Influence of P O2 on Hemoglobin Saturation Hemoglobin saturation plotted against P O2 produces a oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve 98% saturated arterial blood contains 20 ml oxygen per 100 ml blood (20 vol %) is the concentration. As arterial blood flows through capillaries, 5 ml oxygen are released The saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood explains why breathing deeply increases the P O2 but has little effect on oxygen saturation in hemoglobin 1
2 O 2 Transport and consumption during exercise When oxygen consumption increases during aerobic exercise, oxygen delivery must also increase. Oxygen transport = cardiac output x CaO 2 1. Oxygen transport depends on the cardiac output 2. Oxygen transport depends on CaO 2 arterial O 2 3. Oxygen consumption is calculated from the arterialvenous oxygen concentration difference that is extraction of oxygen = CaO 2 CvO 2 How can you increase A-V extraction? Hemoglobin Saturation Curve Per 100 ml blood Figure
3 Factors Influencing Hemoglobin Saturation Temperature, H +, P CO2, and BPG Modify the structure of hemoglobin and alter its affinity for oxygen Increases of these factors: Decrease hemoglobin s affinity for oxygen Enhance oxygen unloading from the blood Decreases act in the opposite manner These parameters are all high in systemic capillaries where oxygen unloading is the goal Shift curve to right = decreased affinity + 1. Increased H 2. Increased CO2 3. Increased temperature 4. Increased DPG Volumes % (ml/dl) 3
4 Hemoglobin Saturation Curve Per 100 ml blood Figure
5 Respiratory Adjustments Pulmonary Ventilation During Exercise Respiratory: Pulmonary Ventilation. (V E = f x V T ) resting peak exercise rate (f) /min /min tidal volume (V T ) 0.5 L 2.25 L. V E (average) 6 L/min 125 L/min Carbon Dioxide Transport Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms Dissolved in plasma 7 to 10% Chemically bound to hemoglobin 20% is carried in RBCs as carbaminohemoglobin Bicarbonate ion in plasma 70% is transported as bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) 5
6 Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and combines with water to form carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ), which quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 H + + HCO 3 Carbon dioxide» Water Carbonic acid Hydrogen ion Bicarbonate ion In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversibly catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide Figure 22.22a 6
7 Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide At the tissues: Bicarbonate quickly diffuses from RBCs into the plasma The chloride shift to counterbalance the outrush of negative bicarbonate ions from the RBCs, chloride ions (Cl ) move from the plasma into the erythrocytes Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide At the lungs, these processes are reversed Bicarbonate ions move into the RBCs and bind with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid Carbonic acid is then split by carbonic anhydrase to release carbon dioxide and water Carbon dioxide then diffuses from the blood into the alveoli 7
8 Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide Figure 22.22b Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood ph The carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system resists blood ph changes If hydrogen ion concentrations in blood begin to rise, excess H + is removed by combining with HCO 3 If hydrogen ion concentrations begin to drop, carbonic acid dissociates, releasing H + 8
9 Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood ph Changes in respiratory rate can also: Alter blood ph Provide a fast-acting system to adjust ph when it is disturbed by metabolic factors CO 2 is an acid. In lung in Blood CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 HCO 3- + H + Carbonic anhydrase 9
10 Oxyhemoglobin Formation Oxyhemoglobin forms when an oxygen molecule reversibly attaches to the heme portion of hemoglobin. The heme unit contains iron ( +2 ) which provides the attractive force. The process is summarized as follows: O 2 + Hb HbO 2 Unit 1 - Objective 6 Carbaminohemoglobin Formation Carbaminohemoglobin forms when a carbon dioxide molecule reversibly attaches to an amino portion of hemoglobin. The process is summarized as follows: CO 2 + Hb HbCO 2 Unit 1 - Objective 6 10
11 Carbonic Acid Formation Carbonic acid forms abundantly in the RBC when the enzyme carbonic anhydrase stimulates water to combine quickly with carbon dioxide. The process is summarized as follows: CO 2 + H 2 0 H 2 CO 3 Unit 1 - Objective 6 Bicarbonate Ion Formation The bicarbonate ion also forms abundantly in the RBC when carbonic acid breaks down to release a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. The process is summarized as follows: H 2 CO 3 H + + HCO 3 Unit 1 - Objective 6 11
12 Objective 7 Explain what takes place during the chloride shift and be able to diagram the chloride shift for tissue capillaries and pulmonary capillaries. Unit 1 - Objective 7 Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries When RBC s move through tissue capillaries, they take in carbon dioxide and release bicarbonate. As bicarbonate is released, chloride (-1) shifts into the RBC in order to replace the negative bicarbonate (-1). This preserves charge balance in the RBC. To see this, look at the next slide. Unit 1 - Objective 7 12
13 Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries Tissue Capillary Chloride Shift in Pulmonary Capillaries When RBC s move through pulmonary capillaries, they take in bicarbonate and release carbon dioxide. As bicarbonate (-1) shifts into the RBC, chloride (-1) shifts out of the RBC. This also preserves charge balance in the RBC. To see this, look at the next slide. Unit 1 - Objective 7 13
14 Chloride Shift in Pulmonary Capillaries Pulmonary Capillary Unit 1 - Objective5 Chloride shift in venous blood 14
15 Decreased Diffusion Normal O 2 P A Decreased diffusion P c Capillary length CO 2 is an acid produces H +. Carbonic anhydrase In blood CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 HCO 3- + H + Bicarbonate is an alkaline HCO 3- + H + remove H + 15
16 Mass balance of O2 O2 Input Artery Tissue or whole body O2 Output Vein oxygen consumption Amount O2 consumed = Amount O2 Artery - Amount O2 Vein Amount = blood flow x O2 concentration Amount O2 Artery = blood flow x arterial O2 concentration Amount O2 Vein = blood flow x Venous O2 concentration During exercise oxygen consumption increases a) oxygen delivery (Amount O2 Artery) must increase. b) Oxygen output (Amount O2 Vein) must decrease c) Oxygen extraction = Amount O2 Artery - Amount O2 Vein O 2 extraction - Adaptation to exercise Oxygen extraction is calculated from the arterial-venous oxygen concentration difference = CaO 2 CvO 2 Input Artery Tissue or whole body Output Vein How can you increase A-V extraction? 16
17 Hemoglobin Saturation Curve Arterial O2 Venous O2 Extra oxygen available for tissue Per 100 ml blood Venous O2 Figure
18 O 2 Transport Adaptation to exercise When oxygen consumption increases during exercise b) oxygen delivery (oxygen transport) must also increase. Input Artery Oxygen Delivery Tissue or whole body Oxygen transport = cardiac output x CaO 2 1. Oxygen transport depends on arterial O 2 (CaO 2 respiration) 2. Oxygen transport depends on the blood flow (Today s lecture) Circulatory systems Who needs these? - Animals >3mm - Animals < 1-3mm can get by diffusion Why do they need them? Gas (O 2 ) transfer- for fuel combustion Energy transfer - for cellular activity Heat transfer - for thermoregulation Transport of nutrients and wastes Transport of hormones, antibodies, and salt Transport of cells (immune functions) Transmittal of force - for movement 18
19 Purpose of a CV System: Transport Types of Circulatory Systems Open circulatory system--same low pressure everywhere in circuit Closed circulatory system--same flow everywhere in circuit Hot-air heating system Fan Furnace House 19
20 Open vs. closed circulatory systems in the home and in animals Closed system at home: hot-water heating system Pump Furnace Pipes Radiators Pipes Open system at home: hot-air heating system Furnace Air ducts Room (without pipes) In animal In animal Closed circulations Found in cephalopods (octopus, squid), and all vertebrates. Blood flows through a series of inter-connected tubes. Heart is the pump keeping pressure high in arteries. Blood flows because of a pressure gradient. Pressure and blood flowing through the tube can be altered by modifying the diameter of the tube. Amount of blood flow altered by modifying pump frequency and force of contraction. 20
21 Open circulations Have limited ability to alter blood velocity & the distribution of blood flow. Blood is distributed in small channels to ensure that diffusion to all cells is adequate. Most snails and aquatic invertebrates result in limited capacity for aerobic metabolism. Insects do not use the blood system for oxygen exchange, rather use a trachea system and can sustain high levels of metabolism. Open circulations Invertebrates: Heart pumps blood via an artery into an open fluid space- hemocoel; 40% of body volume Hemolymph does not flow through capillaries, bathes the cells directly 21
22 Closed Circulatory systems All circulatory systems are comprised of: A pump that forces blood through the network of large distributing vessels A distributing system of arteries that carries the blood to all of the organs A specialized system where there is transfer by diffusion between vessels and tissues (interstitium) (ie.:capillaries) A venous system that returns blood from the transfer structures to the heart Comparing Arteries and Veins Arterial blood is kept at a higher pressure than capillaries and veins to maintain perfusion Venous blood is at a lower pressure than capillaries and arterial blood and contains most of the blood volume 22
23 Vertebrate Closed Circulations In fish blood is pumped by the heart, through the gills and onto the rest of the body In mammals, blood is pumped to the lungs, returns to the heart before being pumped out to the rest of the body; the heart is essentially two pumps working in synchrony Fish and mammals have closed circulatory system Fish Mammals Gills Lung In fish blood is pumped by the heart, through the gills and onto the rest of the body In mammals, blood is pumped to the lungs, returns to the heart before being pumped out to the rest of the body 23
24 The octopus has independent hearts. Hearts where it needs them 24
25 Simplified Circulation Diagram Comparing Arteries and Veins Arterial blood is kept at a higher pressure than capillaries and veins to maintain perfusion Venous blood is at a lower pressure than capillaries and arterial blood and contains most of the blood volume 25
26 Circulation plus Lymphatics Systemic circulation supplies most of the body Pulmonary circulation transfers blood between heart & lungs Lymphatic fluids recover fluid lost from the blood vessels and return to the blood circulation. Producing Movement of Blood Forces imparted by rhythmic contractions e.g. mammals and birds Elastic recoil of arteries following filling by the action of the heart e.g. insects & mammals Squeezing of blood vessels during body movements e.g. insects & mammals Peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle surrounding blood vessels. e.g. worms 26
27 Muscular Pumps HEART Heart pump consists of muscle surrounding a tube that contracts and shortens reducing the volume in the tube and thus increasing the pressure in the tube. When the pressure in the tube is greater than the resisting pressure fluid moves down its pressure gradient Mammalian Heart Hearts are valved muscular pumps that pump blood in one direction Mammalian heart has four chambers two atria that collect blood returning to the heart and two pumpsventricles contract and eject blood into the circulatory systems 27
28 Comparative heart morphology Mammals and birds have essentially two pumps. Need to have the same cardiac output in each pump system in order to avoid shifts in blood volume Unlike mammals and birds, other vertebrate hearts have either an undivided ventricle or some other mechanism that allows for shunting of blood from one circuit to another. Heart Rate A heart beat consists of a rhythmic contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the whole cardiac mass Heart beat frequency or pulse rate in humans at rest is 70 bpm, during exercise? Heart rate frequency is inversely related to body size (3000kg Elephant - 25 bpm, 3g Shrew - >600 bpm) 28
29 Hemodynamics: What determines flow rate through vessel? P 1 (P 1 - P 0 ) = µp P 0 radius Length Flow What if? Determine the relative change in flow rate if a) the length of the tube doubles. b) the pressure gradient doubles c) the radius doubles Assume each of these had an initial value of 1 unit. 29
30 Hemodynamics: What determines flow rate through vessel? 1. If length of tube doubles Flow rate halves 2. If pressure gradient doubles Flow rate doubles 3. If radius doubles Flow rate increases 16-times (2x2x2x2) Most sensitive to changes in radius Resistance to Flow π x r 4 Flow = ΔP x x η x L 8 x η x L Resistance = π x r 4 ΔP Flow = Resistance 30
31 The Classes of Blood Vessels Tubes of different sizes Different elastic properties Varying amounts of smooth muscle Blood vessels- arteries Thick, elastic muscular walls. Act as a conduit for blood between heart and capillaries Pressure reservoir forcing blood into smaller vessels. Control distribution of blood in capillaries via selective constriction. 31
32 Blood vessels- arterioles Smallest arteries Wall only contains smooth muscle and inner endothelial lining The main control point for blood flow to tissues Can change their radius Feeds blood into the capillaries Blood vessels- capillaries Smallest units in the blood system. Single cell layer (endothelium) Virtually all transfer of gases and solutes occurs here 32
33 Blood vessels - venules Smallest veins Thin wall with little connective tissue Collects blood from capillaries Site where white blood cells adhere (stick) and the leave the blood and enter the tissue at site of infection Blood vessels - veins Large volume, thin walled, and small muscle content, low-pressure system, larger inside diameter than arteries. Reservoir of blood- 50% of the total volume Conduit for the return of blood to the heart. 33
34 Hemodynamic pressure Pressure/ kinetic energy gradients are needed for blood flow. Because resistance is highest in the arterioles, largest pressure decrease occurs in this region. Hemodynamics Velocity is inversely proportional to the total cross sectional area at any given point. Velocity is highest in the arteries and veins and lowest in the capillaries whereas the converse is true for the total cross sectional area. 34
35 Determine the stroke volume if a young healthy person has cardiac output of 6 liters and a pulse of 60 beats per minute. On a second occasion, heart rate is 90 beats/min and stroke volume is 120 ml/beat Determine cardiac output. Explain the difference in CO from the 1st data set 35
36 Stroke volume Stroke volume is the difference between the volume of blood in the ventricle just before contraction ( end diastolic volume) and the volume in the ventricle at the end of a contraction (end systolic volume). SV = EDV ESV End diastolic volume The volume of blood at the end of filling is determined by Venous filling pressure Pressures generated during atrial contraction. The distensibility of the ventricular wall. The time available for filling. 36
37 End Systolic Volume The volume of blood left in the heart at the end of emptying is determined by Pressures generated during ventricular contraction. The pressure in the outflow channels from the heart (aortic and pulmonary arteries). Ejection Fraction The proportion of blood that leaves the ventricle per beat. Depends upon the force of contraction. EF = (SV/ EDV)% EF = {(EDV-ESV)/EDV} x
38 EDV is 175 ml ESV is 25 ml Calculation: find the SV and EF Calculation Flow = 9 ml/min P 1 = 100 mmhg P 0 = 10 mmhg Calculate R ΔP Flow = Resistance 38
39 Calculation Two tubes having P 1 = 100 mmhg P 0 = 10 mmhg The resistances in the 2 tubes are: R 1 =9 ; R 2 = 4.5 Calculate: Flow 1, Flow 2 Blood pressure Always fluid in heart and blood vessels and this exerts a pressure on the walls of the vessels. During systole blood is pumped out ventricle into aorta, increasing its blood pressure During diastole, the relaxed heart is filling with blood returned via vena cava. Blood pressure in the aorta is lowest during diastole. 39
40 Blood pressure Humans 120/80mm Hg what does this mean? Blood pressure Humans 120/80mm Hg what does this mean? 120 is systolic pressure i.e. pressure in the aorta after heart has finished contracting 80 is the diastolic pressure; the pressure in the aorta during the relaxation phase of the heart while the ventricles are filling. 40
41 Blood pressure Always fluid in heart and blood vessels and this exerts a pressure on the walls of the vessels. During systole blood is pumped out ventricle into aorta, increasing its blood pressure During diastole, the relaxed heart is filling with blood returned via vena cava. Blood pressure in the aorta is lowest during diastole. 41
42 Circulations How can amount of blood flowing be adjusted to meet changing demands? How can amount of blood flowing be adjusted to meet changing demands? ΔP Flow = Resistance ΔP = perfusion pressure = determined by the heart Resistance = determined by blood vessels 42
43 How can amount of blood flowing be adjusted to meet changing demands? Amount of blood flowing can be altered by modifying pump (heart) frequency and force of contraction. Pressure and blood flowing through the tube can be altered by modifying the tube. HEART FUNCTION Venous Return Cardiac Output 43
44 Heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output Cardiac output = the amount of blood pumped out from a ventricle in 1 minute ( liters/min) Stroke volume = the amount of blood pumped out in a single heart beat Heart rate = the number of times in a minute the heart contracts Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate Control of Blood Flow During Exercise ΔP Flow = Resistance Heart Blood Vessels Exercise: oincrease cardiac output (heart) odilate blood vessels Cardiac output = SV x HR 44
45 Calculate Systemic Peripheral Resistance ΔP R = Q Q = cardiac output (CO) = 5.1 L/min = 5,100 ml/min = 85 ml/sec Calculate Pulmonary Resistance Pulmonary Resistance 1. The lung is a low resistance vascular bed compared to the systemic resistance (3 < 20 mm Hg/L/min). 2. The lung must not offer high resistance, this can lead to pulmonary edema (pressure mediated filtration) 45
46 Stroke volume Stroke volume is the difference between the volume of blood in the ventricle just before contraction ( end diastolic volume) and the volume in the ventricle at the end of a contraction (end systolic volume). SV = EDV ESV Calculation: find the SV and EF Measurement 1 EDV is 150 ml ESV is 80 ml Measurement 2 EDV is 175 ml ESV is 25 ml 46
47 Cardiac Output Cardiac Output (L/min) Stroke Volume (ml/beat) Heart Rate (Beats/min) Resting Exercising (Athlete) Exercising (Non Athlete) Circulation 47
48 Remember Thursday 07/20 last lecture before the exam Energy and organisms in two biomes: comparisons and extrapolations, Regulation and Homeostasis Review for exam Attendance is mandatory 48
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