Undergraduate Exposure to Messages About Campus Sexual Assault: Awareness of Campus Resources
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1 Undergraduate Exposure to Messages About Campus Sexual Assault: Awareness of Campus Resources Sarah McMahon, Kate Stepleton Journal of College Student Development, Volume 59, Number 1, January-February 2018, pp (Article) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: For additional information about this article No institutional affiliation (16 Jan :47 GMT)
2 Edwards, K. M., Ullman S. E., & Leyva C. P. (2015). Supporting Survivors and Self: An intervention for social supports of survivors of partner abuse and sexual aggression. Durham: University of New Hampshire. Orchowski, L. M., United, A. S., & Gidycz, C. A. (2013). Social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization and adjustment among survivors of sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, Petty R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In R. E. Petty & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Communication and persuasion (pp. 1 24). New York, NY: Springer. Relyea, M., & Ullman, S. E. (2015). Measuring social reactions to female victims of alcohol-involved sexual assault: The Social Reactions Questionnaire Alcohol (SRQ-A). Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30, Straus, M. A. (2004). Prevalence of violence against dating partners by male and female university students worldwide. Violence Against Women, 10, doi: / Sylaska, K. M., & Edwards, K. M. (2014). Disclosure of intimate partner violence to informal social support network members: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15, doi: / Ullman, S. E. (2000). Psychometric characteristics of the Social Reactions Questionnaire. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, doi: /j tb00208 Ullman, S. E. (2010). Talking about sexual assault: Society s response to survivors. Washington, DC: American Psycho logi cal Association. Undergraduate Exposure to Messages About Campus Sexual Assault: Awareness of Campus Resources Sarah McMahon Kate Stepleton A report released by the Obama Administration s White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault calls upon colleges and universities to provide resources on campus for students who experience sexual violence (White House, 2014); however, students report a low awareness of services available on their campuses related to sexual violence and are often unsure of how to respond upon hearing a disclosure of sexual violence (Walsh, Banyard, Moynihan, Ward, & Cohn, 2010). It is important for students to know about resources on campus, not only if they themselves experience victimization, but also to help support peers who are more likely to disclose their experiences of sexual violence to each other than to campus resources (Sabina & Ho, 2014). Therefore, how best to equip students with the information and tools to seek assistance for their own victimization or to support their peers who disclose victimization are important issues for consideration in higher education settings (Amar, Strout, Simpson, Cardiello, & Beckford, 2014). Colleges and universities can provide students with information about sexual violence and campus resources through websites, class discussions, and educational programs. Based on health promotion models and the biomedical model of dose response, greater exposure to this information would likely yield better outcomes (M. Taylor et al., 2010). Other fields have demonstrated the positive relationship between level of exposure to prevention messages and positive health outcomes, such as HIV prevention (Sumartojo et al., 2008; M. Taylor et al., 2010) and dating violence education (Foshee et al., 2012; B. G. Sarah McMahon is Assistant Professor and Associate Director of the Center on Violence Against Women and Children at the School of Social Work at Rutgers University. Kate Stepleton is a Ph.D. Candidate at the School of Social Work at Rutgers University. 110 Journal of College Student Development
3 Taylor, Stein, Mumford, & Woods, 2013). The idea of exposure to multiple prevention messages is supported by increasing recognition that a multidose, multipronged approach is needed for campus sexual violence (Banyard, 2014). For example, research studies have indicated that a one-shot prevention education program does not sustain positive changes over time, but that continued exposure through booster sessions helps to sustain positive effects (Banyard, Moynihan, & Plante, 2007; Coker et al., 2011). In addition, exposure to different types of programming (e.g., posters and educational sessions) can provide stronger outcomes (Moynihan et al., 2015). The extant literature has not addressed whether multiple exposures to information and mes sages about sexual violence affect students awareness of resources or impact students efficacy in seeking assistance for themselves or a peer who experiences sexual violence. To help address this gap in research and inform colleges and universities in the efforts to address sexual violence, we examined the following research questions: (a) What is the level of sexual victimization in this sample, both self-reported and reported by peers?(b) Does the level of exposure to information and education about sexual violence affect students awareness of resources? Does it impact their confidence in knowing how to seek assistance if the student or a peer were sexually victimized? METHOD Data were drawn from an online campus climate survey based on the White House Task Force Tool regarding sexual violence conducted at a large, public university in the Northeast United States in The university under study provided a comprehensive approach to sexual violence prevention education that included educational programs, trainings, and information posted on the school website and in residence halls. All students were invited to complete the anonymous survey through a broad outreach campaign, and cash prizes were awarded to randomly selected respondents to incentivize participation. All materials and procedures were approved by the university s Institutional Review Board. A total of 9,358 undergraduate students responded to the survey for a response rate of 30%. Of those, some cases were removed from the current analysis for incorrect responses to an item included as a reliability check (a question that asked if students were still reading the survey; n = 681), no valid responses (n = 78), software error (n = 4), or age ( < 17 or > 24; n = 370), since students ages are often cited as most at risk for experiencing campus sexual violence (Black et al., 2011). For this study listwise deletion was employed, yielding a final analytic sample of 6,866 students. To determine the students level of exposure to messages about sexual violence, the predictor variable in our analysis, the survey included 19 modes of information (e.g., posters about sexual violence, discussion about sexual violence in class); participants were asked to check all types which they had been exposed to. Students who did not mark any exposure but otherwise provided valid responses to all required survey questions were assigned sum scores of 0 (n = 143). To assess awareness of campus resources, an outcome variable in this study, students rated their knowledge of eight unique, on-campus resources on a Likert-type scale from 1 (not at all aware) to 5 (extremely aware), α =.845, and a mean score was computed. The other outcome variable used, efficacy in seeking help for sexual violence, was also measured on a Likert scale, where students were asked to rate their level of agreement from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with the following statement: If a friend or I were sexually assaulted, I know where to get help on January February 2018 vol 59 / no 1 111
4 Table 1. Awareness of Campus Resources Model 1 Model 2 B a SE B β B SE B β Exposures *** 0.52 Male (ref. Female) * *** 0.05 Race/Ethnicity (ref. White) african American *** ** 0.03 asian American * Hispanic Other Age *** *** 0.09 Ever Received Student Disclosure *** Experienced Sexual Violence ** 0.03 Constant *** *** F (df) (8, 6857) (9, 6856) R R b a B = Unstandardized coefficient. b F(1, 6856) = , p <.000. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001. campus. Three survey questions adapted from Krebs.et al. (2007) asked about experiences of unwanted sexual contact involving physical force or threats of physical force. For the purposes of our analyses, sexual violence survivors were identified as those who affirmed any of these items. Control variables for our analysis included demographic information drawn from student records, self-reports of sexual violence victimization, and receipt of a peer s disclosure of sexual violence since coming to college. Two linear regressions were run for each of the two outcome variables, awareness and confidence in seeking assistance. In the first of each pair of regressions, demographic differences, receipt of a disclosure in the past, and victimization were included as predictors. The second regressions also included students level of exposure as a predictor. Wald tests were used to assess the significance of improvements in the models predictive ability as variable blocks were entered. All data analysis was performed using Stata (version 14.1). RESULTS With a mean age of 19.8 years, the analytic sample was 63.5% female and largely White or Asian American (44.6% and 29.1%, respectively); the remaining students identified themselves as Hispanic (13.1%), African American (8.0%), or other (5.3%). The demographic composition of the sample closely mirrored that of the general undergraduate student body in age and race/ethnicity. Female students are overrepresented among respondents, though this is common for similar surveys addressing sexual violence. Of female respondents, 13.8% had experienced unwanted sexual contact involving physical force or threat of physical force since matriculation; 3.1% of males reported such 112 Journal of College Student Development
5 victimization. Approximately one quarter (25.1%) of participants reported receiving at least one disclosure of sexual violence from another student, and 13.5% indicated receiving more than one; 7.1% had received three or more disclosures. At least one exposure to information about sexual violence was reported by nearly all respondents (97.9%). On average, participants reported receiving 6 (SD = 3.61) total exposures to messages about sexual violence on campus. Students had limited overall awareness of the campus resources related to sexual violence (M = 2.73, SD = 0.87). Likewise, students had moderate confidence in knowing what to do should a sexual assault occur (M = 3.15, SD = 1.23). The first set of regression models suggest that level of exposure is positively associated with awareness (Table 1). Model 1, which includes demographic variables as predictors (sex, race/ethnicity, and age), as well as receipt of disclosure and victimization, accounted for 3% of the variance in mean awareness. Prediction was significantly improved in the full model (Model 2), which included total level of exposure. Standardized coefficients suggest that students exposure to messages about sexual violence has the greatest impact on awareness, compared to demographic predictors, receipt of disclosure, and victimization. To explore whether level of exposure predicts students confidence in seeking help, a second set of nested linear regressions was performed (Table 2). In Model 1, demographic variables (sex, race/ethnicity, and age), receipt of disclosure, and victimization significantly predicted only 1% of the variance in confidence. Again, prediction was significantly improved when level of exposure was added in the full model (Model 2), and comparison of standardized coefficients suggests that level of exposure has the greatest impact on confidence. Table 2. Confidence in Knowing What to Do if Sexual Violence Occurs Model 1 Model 2 B a SE B β B SE B β Exposures *** 0.45 Male (ref. Female) *** *** 0.06 Race/Ethnicity (ref. White) african American *** *** 0.00 asian American Hispanic Other Age *** * 0.03 Ever Received Student Disclosure *** *** 0.05 Experienced Sexual Violence * 0.02 Constant *** *** F (df) (8, 6857) (9,6856) R R b a B = Unstandardized coefficient. b F(1, 6856) = , p <.000. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001. January February 2018 vol 59 / no 1 113
6 Other significant predictors in the full models included male (compared to female), African American (compared to White), and age. Regarding the full models, having received a disclosure of a peer s sexual assault was signi ficantly positively associated with confidence, but not awareness of campus resources. Interestingly, the direction of influ ence of victimization on both awareness and confidence changed from positive to negative and became statistically significant with the inclusion of level of exposure in the full models. DISCUSSION While many of the students in this study encountered campus sexual violence, either through their own experiences or through receiving disclosures from peers, analyses indicate that overall students in this sample had limited awareness of campus resources and only moderate confidence in knowing where to go for assistance should a sexual assault occur, which is consistent with previous research (e.g., Sabina & Ho, 2014). After exploring demographic variables, students level of exposure to messages about sexual violence significantly increased the explanatory power of the models predicting level of awareness of campus resources and confidence in knowing where to seek assistance. Although exploratory, this study has implications for practitioners on college campuses to consider. First, to increase the level of exposure to information it is important for campus leaders to explore various avenues to share information with students in ongoing ways throughout their college tenure, in line with a multipronged, multidose approach (Banyard, 2014; M. Taylor et al., 2010). Toolkits are available to assist colleges and universities in exploring the multiple ways to deliver information about campus sexual assault, such as the Center for Changing Our Campus Culture ( org). In addition, because students are receiving disclosures of sexual violence from their peers, it is critical to tailor educational efforts to address how best to support a friend and how to connect them with resources. Emphasizing the important role that students have as potential helpers is consistent with the bystander education approach, which frames sexual violence as a community issue and one where we all have the responsibility to participate in some way (Banyard, 2015). The results of the study are limited, and further work is needed to replicate and expand them. This study was conducted on one campus, which limits the ability to generalize the findings. This study was also exploratory and cross-sectional and relied on self-reported data. More research is needed to understand the nature of exposures better, including what type of information is shared, by whom, and in what context, as well as the impact of cumulative exposure. In addition, there may be other sources conveying information to students, such as the media, family, or community and faith-based organizations, which were not addressed in this study. Other demographic variables may also contribute to the variation in responses, such as academic majors, extracurricular activities, and commuter status. The amount of variance explained by the regression models for both outcome variables of awareness and confidence were small to moderate; clearly other factors play a role. Further research is needed to explore the range of factors that may influence students awareness of resources and confidence in knowing where to seek assistance. Other limitations must be considered when interpreting the findings from this study. The question about confidence in where to get help if a sexual assault occurs was based on a single item regarding knowledge of where to go to get help on campus if a sexual assault occurs; 114 Journal of College Student Development
7 but there may be other places that students could seek assistance, such as an off-campus rape crisis center or hospital. In addition, the measure of campus sexual violence that was used in this study was narrow, reflecting unwanted or attempted sexual contact of a physical nature that survey respondents were certain took place. This may have excluded students who experienced sexual violence but did not see it as physically forced, and those who may have been unable to provide consent for various reasons, including alcohol use. There was also likely self-selection bias introduced into the sample, as all members of the student body were invited to participate rather than a random selection. Despite these limitations, this study contributes to understanding the potential role of exposure to information about sexual violence, indicating that it significantly affected students awareness of campus resources and confidence in where to go to seek assistance on campus. This study lays a foundation for researchers to further investigate the role of exposure to information and suggests that exposing students to information about sexual violence multiple times is an important strategy for college campuses to consider. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sarah McMahon, Asssociate Professor and Associate Director, Center on Violence Against Women, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, 536 George Street, New Brunswick NJ 08901; smcmahon@ssw.rutgers.edu REFERENCES Amar, A. F., Strout, T. D., Simpson, S., Cardiello, M., & Beckford, S. (2014). Administrators perceptions of college campus protocols, response, and student prevention efforts for sexual assault. Violence and Victims, 29, Banyard, V. L. (2014). Improving college campus based prevention of violence against women: A strategic plan for research built on multipronged practices and policies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15, Banyard, V. L. (2015). Toward the next generation of bystander prevention of sexual and relationship violence: Action coils to engage communities. New York, NY: Springer. Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Plante, E. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coker A. L., Cook-Craig, P.G., Williams C. M., Fisher, B. S., Clear, E. R., Garcia, L. S., & Hegge, L. M. (2011). Evaluation of Green Dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17, Foshee, V. A., McNaughton Reyes, H. L., Ennett, S. T., Cance, J. D., Bauman, K. E., & Bowling, J. M. (2012). Assessing the effects of families for Safe Dates, a family-based teen dating abuse prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health 51, Krebs, C., Lindquist, C., Berzofsky, M., Shook-Sa, B., Peterson, K., Planty, M.,... Stroop, J. (2016). Campus climate survey validation study final technical report. Retrieved from Moynihan, M. M., Banyard, V. L., Cares, A. C., Potter, S. J., Williams, L. M., & Stapleton, J. G. (2015). Encouraging responses in sexual and relationship violence prevention: What program effects remain 1 year later? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30, Sabina, C., & Ho, L. (2014). Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence: Disclosure, service, utilization, and service provision. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15, Sumartojo, E., Lyles, C., Choi, K., Clark, L., Collins, C., Grey, C., & Remafedi, G. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of HIV testing in a multi-site sample of young men who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 20, Taylor, B. G., Stein, N. D., Mumford, E. A., & Woods, D. (2013). Shifting boundaries: An experimental evaluation of a dating violence prevention program in middle schools. Prevention Science, 14, Taylor, M., Dlamini, S., Meyer-Weitz, A., Sathiparsad, R., Jinabhai, C., & Esterhuizen, T. (2010). Changing sexual behaviour to reduce HIV transmission A multi-faceted approach to HIV prevention and treatment in a rural South African setting. AIDS Care, 22, Walsh, W., Banyard, V., Moynihan, M., Ward, S., & Cohn, E. (2010). Disclosure and service use on a college campus after an unwanted sexual experience. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11, White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. (2014). Not alone: The first report of the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. Retrieved from January February 2018 vol 59 / no 1 115
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