Chapter 28 The Reproductive Systems

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1 Chapter 28 The Reproductive Systems Sexual reproduction produces new individuals germ cells called gametes (sperm & 2ndary oocyte) fertilization produces one cell with one set of chromosomes, half from each parent Gonads produce gametes & secrete sex hormones Reproductive system includes: gonads, ducts, glands & supporting structures Gynecology is study of the female reproductive system Urology is study of urinary system & male reproductive system Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-1

2 Chromosomes in Somatic Cells & Gametes Somatic cells (diploid cells) 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 each pair is homologous since contain similar genes in same order one member of each pair is from each parent 22 autosomes & 1 pair of sex chromosomes sex chromosomes are either X or Y females have two X chromosomes males have an X and a smaller Y chromosome Gametes (haploid cells) single set of chromosomes for a total of 23 produced by special type of cell division - meiosis Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-2

3 Male Reproductive System Gonads, ducts, sex glands & supporting structures such as the prostrate, urethra, and penile urethra Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-3

4 Posterior View of Male Reproductive System Ureter Bladder Seminal Vesicle Prostate gland Urethra Cowpers gland Vas Deferens Epididymis Seminiferous tubule Testis Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-4

5 Scrotum Sac of loose skin, fascia & smooth muscle divided into two pouches by septum Temperature regulation of testes sperm survival requires 3 degrees lower temperature than core body temperature cremaster muscle in spermatic cord elevates testes on exposure to cold & during arousal warmth reverses the process Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-5

6 Descent of Testes Develop near kidney on posterior abdominal wall Descends into scrotum by passing through inguinal canal during 7th month of fetal development inguinal hernia if intestinal contents protrude into the inguinal canal Cryptorchidism failure of testes to desend sterility 28-6

7 Testes Sperm cells produced by cells of the seminiferous tubules Testosterone produced by interstitial cells of Leydig Epididymis - store sperm Sperm stored in epididymis 28-7

8 Testosterone produced By the Interstitial cells of Leydig seminal vesicle vas deferens epididymis prostate gland bulbourethral gland urethra (Cowpers Gland) wall of seminiferous tubule SEMINIFEROS TUBULE / Site of sperm production testis penis 28-8

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10 Sperm Morphology Adapted for reaching & penetrating a secondary oocyte (egg) Head contains DNA & acrosome - enzymes to penetrate egg membrane Midpiece contains mitochondria to form ATP Tail is flagellum used for locomotion

11 Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis At Puberty; hypothalamus increases its stimulation of anterior pituitary with releasing hormones / GnRH anterior pituitary increases secretion LH & FSH LH stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone an enzyme in prostate & seminal vesicles converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT-more potent) FSH stimulates spermatogenesis testosterone stimulates final steps of spermatogenesis 28-11

12 Control of Testosterone Production Negative feedback system controls blood levels of testosterone Receptors in hypothalamus detect increase in testosterone blood level Secretion of GnRH slowed Anterior pituitary (FSH & LH hormones) slowed Leydig cells of testes inhibited Blood level returns normal 28-12

13 Ductus (Vas) Deferens Pathway of 18 inch smooth muscular tube ascends along posterior border of epididymis passes up through spermatic cord and inguinal ligament reaches posterior surface of urinary bladder empties into prostatic urethra with seminal vesicle convey sperm along through peristaltic contractions Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-13

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15 Urethra Common passageway for urine and semen Prostatic Urethra through prostate gland Penile Urethra through copus spongiosum of penis

16 Accessory Sex Glands Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-16

17 Pair of pouchlike organs found posterior to the base of bladder Seminal Vesicles Alkaline, viscous fluid neutralizes vaginal acid & male urethra fructose for ATP production prostaglandins stimulate sperm motility & viability clotting proteins for coagulation of semen 60% of volume of semen

18 Single organ the size of chestnut found inferior to bladder Prostate Gland Secretes milky, ph 6.5 fluid that increases sperm motility and viability citric acid for ATP production & enzymes for seminal liquefaction Many duct openings Enlarges with age and compresses postrate urethra making it hard to void 25% of volume of semen

19 Bulbourethral or Cowper s Gland Paired, pea-sized gland Secretes alkaline mucous into spongy urethra Neutralizes vaginal acids Fluid for lubrication

20 Semen Mixture of sperm & secretions from seminal vesicle, prostrate and bulbo-urethral glands slightly alkaline, milky appearance, sticky contains nutrients, clotting proteins. Typical ejaculate is 2.5 to 5 ml in volume Normal sperm count is 50 to 150 million/ml Up to 750 million sperm per ejaculation Coagulates within 5 minutes -- reliquefies in 15 due to enzymes produced by the prostate gland Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-20

21 Penis Passageway for semen & urine Body composed of three erectile tissue masses filled with blood sinuses Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-21

22 Corpora cavernosa upper paired, erectile tissue masses Cross-Section of Penis Corpus spongiosum lower erectile tissue mass erection - nerve & vascular event parasympathetic stimulation for erection blood flows in / compresses veins blood remains Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-22

23 Erection & Ejaculation Erection sexual stimulation dilates the arteries supplying the penis blood enters the penis compressing the veins so that the blood is trapped. parasympathetic reflex causes erection Ejaculation - Sympathetic Stimulation Smooth muscle contractions of vas deferens, seminal vesicles, & ejaculatory duct move semen (emission) Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-23

24 Female Reproductive System Ovaries produce 2ndary oocytes (eggs) & hormones Uterine tubes transport fertilized ova Uterus where fetal development occurs Vulva external genitalia Mammary glands produce milk Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-24

25 Fig. 45.6a, p. 788 Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-25

26 oviduct OVARY uterus vagina Fig. 45.7a, p. 790 Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-26

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28 Life History of Oogonia As a fetus, oogonia divide to produce millions by mitosis but most degenerate (atresia) Some develop into primary follicles & stop in prophase stage of meiosis I 200,000 to 2 million primary follicles present at birth 40,000 remain at puberty but only 400 mature during a woman s life Many follicles develop but only 1 follicle matures each month corpus luteum - left over cells of the follicle / remains to maintain pregnancy 1st trimester Penetration by the sperm causes the final stages of meiosis to occur

29 Polar bodies degenerate first polar body haploid) three polar bodies haploid) oogonium (diploid reproductive cell) primary oocyte (diploid) secondary oocyte haploid) ovum (haploid) GROWTH MEITOSIS I, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION MEIOSIS II, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION Secondary oocyte is ovulated along with polar body Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-29

30 Uterine or Fallopian Tubes Narrow, 4 inch tube extends from ovary to uterus infundibulum is open, funnelshaped portion near the ovary fimbriae are moving fingerlike processes egg has to traverse space to enter uterine tube fertilization in upper 1/3 of uterine Tube zygote begins to divide (grow & develop) & reaches uterus about 3 days after fertilization & 3 days later implants in the uterus

31 Anatomy of the Uterus Site of menstruation & development of fetus Description 3 inches long by 2 in. wide and 1 in. thick subdivided into fundus, body, isthmus & cervix

32 Histology of the Uterus 3 Layers perimetrium Endometrium simple columnar epithelium and a stroma of connective tissue and endometrial glands Myometrium 3 layers of smooth muscle Perimetrium visceral peritoneum

33 Hysterectomy Surgical removal of the uterus Indications for surgery endometriosis, ovarian cysts, excessive bleeding, cancer of cervix, uterus or ovaries Complete hysterectomy removes cervix Radical hysterectomy removes uterus, tubes, ovaries, part of vagina, pelvic lymph nodes and supporting ligaments

34 Vagina Passageway for birth, menstrual flow & intercourse Description 4 inch long fibromuscular organ ending at cervix mucosal layer stratified squamous epithelium & areolar connective tissue large stores of glycogen breakdown to produce acidic ph muscularis layer is smooth muscle allows considerable stretch lies between urinary bladder and rectum orifice partially closed with membrane (hymen)

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36 Mammary Glands Modified sweat glands that produce milk (lactation) lobes are divided into lobules glands get larger when pregnant & nursing amount of adipose tissue determines size of breast when not pregnant milk-secreting glands open by lactiferous ducts at the nipple areola is pigmented area around nipple

37 Fibrocystic Disease of the Breasts Most common cause of breast lumps Cysts and thickenings of alveoli develop Cause hormonal imbalance excess of estrogen or deficiency of progesterone in the postovulatory phase result is lumpy, swollen & tender breast a week before menstruation begins Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-37

38 hypothalamus GnRH anterioir pituitary The Ovarian Cycle FSH LH midcycle peak of LH (triggers ovulation) hypothalamus anterior lobe of pituitary gland FSH LH LH growth of follicle Follicular phase estrogens ovulation corpus luteum Luteal phase progesterone, estrogen Blood levels of FSH (purple) and LH (lavender) Ovarian events endometrium of uterus estrogens menstruation Growth progesterone, estrogen Blood levels of estrogens (light blue) and progesterone (dark blue) Fig. 45.9, p. 792 Days of one menstrual cycle (using 28 days as Tortora the average & Grabowski duration) 9/e ã2000 JWS FOLLICULAR PHASE OF LUTEAL PHASE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE MENSTRUAL CYCLE Vascularization Uterine lining

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40 Summary of Ovarian / Uterine Cycle 1. The anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH & LH 2. FSH stimulates maturation of a follicle 3. Granulosa cells of the follicle produce & secrete estrogen -estrogen maintains secondary sexual traits -estrogen also causes the uterine lining to thicken / grow 4. The anterior pituitary gland releases a surge of LH, which stimulates ovulation Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-40

41 5. After ovulation follicular & thecal cells become the corpus luteum, which secrete estrogen & progesterone -estrogen continues to stimulate uterine wall development -progesterone stimulates the uterine lining to become more glandular and vascular -estrogen & progesterone also inhibit secretion of LH & FSH from the anterior pituitary gland preventing ovulation while pregnant 6. If the egg cell is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates 7. Luteal hormone levels decline, blood vessels in the uterine lining constricts 8. Uterine lining disintegrates and sloughs off = menstrual flow 9. Anterior pituitary gland, no longer inhibited, secretes FSH & LH 10.Menstrual cycle repeats Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-41

42 Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy 1. Following implantation, the embryonic cells begin to secrete hcg Presence of hcg is tested for in early pregnacy test 2. hcg maintains the corpus luteum, which continues secreting estrogen & progesterone during 1st trimester 3.As the placenta develops, the placenta then secretes large quantities of estrogen & progesterone to maintain the uterus Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-42

43 4. Placental estrogen & progesterone -stimulate the uterine lining to continue development -maintain uterine lining -inhibit secretion of FSH & LH from the anterior pituitary gland to prevent ovulation while pregnant 5. Relaxin from the corpus luteum also inhibits uterine contractions and relaxes the pelvic ligaments 6. The placenta secretes placental lactogen that stimulates breast development Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-43

44 Sperm Penetration During Fertilization Sperm penetrates the granulosa cells around the oocyte (corona radiata) Sperm digests its way through the zona pellucida One sperm fuses with egg membrane 1-3 seconds after contact, oocyte membrane depolarizes & other cells can not fuse with it Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-44

45 Events Within the Egg Sperm entry, triggers oocyte to complete meiosis II and dump second polar body Once inside the oocyte, the sperm loses its tail & becomes a male pronucleus Fusion of male & female haploid pronuclei is the true moment of fertilization Fertilized ovum (2n) is called a zygote zona pellucida still surrounds it Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-45

46 From Fertilization to Implantation Ectopic pregnancy - development of embryo outside of the uterus 28-46

47 inner cell mass Trip to Uterus takes about 3 days oviduct Morula uterus stage Blastocyst for 3 days FERTILIZATION ovary endometrium IMPLANTATION About 6 days after fertilization Ectopic pregnancy when embryo develops outside the uterus Fig a, p. 794 Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-47

48 Formation of the Early Embryo Zygote for first 2 weeks Embryo - End of 2nd week of life to end of 8 weeks Fetus - 9 weeks to birth Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-48

49 Nature of Twins Fraternal twins (dizygotic) independent release of 2 oocytes fertilized by 2 separate sperm as different as any 2 siblings Identical twins (monozygotic) 2 individuals that develop from a single fertilized ovum genetically identical & always the same sex if ovum does not completely separate, conjoined twins (share some body structures) Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-49

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51 Labor Head enters cervix Oxytocin released from Post. PG Uterine contractions increased Birth Positive feedback mechanism Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-51

52 Control of Human Fertility Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-52

53 Surgical Sterilization Male (vasectomy) - 99% effective removal of a portion of the vas deferens incision in posterior scrotal sac out patient & local anesthesia sperm can no longer reach the exterior degenerate and removed by phagocytosis sexual desire not effected since testosterone levels unchanged Female (tubal ligation) - 99% effective uterine tubes are tied closed and cut sperm can not reach oocyte 28-53

54 Hormonal Birth Control Oral contraceptive --- the pill 99% effective progesterone & estrogen combination pill negative feedback on the anterior pituitary & hypothalamus to prevent secretion of FSH & LH no follicular development or ovulation other benefits of the pill regulate menstrual cycle & reduce endometriosis Risks increased for smokers increased chances of blood clot formation Not recommended for people with liver disease, hypertension, heart disease, migraines

55 99% effective Other Hormonal Methods Norplant surgically implanted capsules releasing progestin & inhibiting ovulation for 5 years Depo-provera intramuscular injection of progesterone every 3 months that changes uterine lining & ovum maturation Vaginal ring worn internally releasing progestin or combination of progestin & estrogen

56 Intrauterine Devices / IUD More than 90% effective Small object made of plastic, copper or steel left in cavity of uterus changes uterine lining so is unfavorable for embryo implantation approved for 10 year usage May cause excessive bleeding or discomfort Fertilization does occur

57 Spermatocides 26% failure rate Chemical substances in foam, cream, jelly, douche or suppository that kill sperm upon contact Available without prescription Normally used in conjunction with a barrier device May inactivate HIV virus & decrease incidence of bacterial STD s (gonnorhea and chlamydia) Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS

58 Mechanical Barriers Male & female condoms (vaginal pouch) covers penis or lines vagina 14% failure rate for pregnancy / STD failure rate? Diaphragm = dome-shaped cap over cervix prevents entry of sperm into uterus does not protect against AIDS or STD may cause recurrent UTIs All of the above may offer some protection against sexually transmitted disease Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-58

59 Physiological Methods of Birth Control Rhythm method (periodic abstinence) 25% failure abstaining from intercourse when secondary oocyte is likely to be viable (3 to 7 days of cycle) 3 days before ovulation, ovulation & 3 days after few women absolutely regular cycles will not know it was an irregular cycle until too late Sympto-thermal method 20% failure rate observe body for signs of ovulation & abstain form intercourse accordingly increased basal body temperature & mucus changes problem is sperm is viable for 48 hours Coitus interruptus (withdrawal before ejaculation) 18% failure rate Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-59

60 Aging Female Reproductive System Hormone-directed sexual characteristics start to develop at puberty Reproductive cycle occurs once a month from menarche (10-14) until menopause (between 40 & 50) Fertility declines with age decreasing number of viable follicles less frequent ovulation declining ability of uterus to support young embryo Menopause is cessation of menstruation no remaining follicles to stimulate estrogen secretion osteoporosis, hot flashes, mood swings, organ atrophy Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-60

61 Aging Male Reproductive System Decline in reproductive function is subtle / sperm production virtually till death Decline in testosterone at 55 reduced muscle synthesis fewer viable sperm reduced sexual desire Enlargement of prostate (benign hyperplasia) 1/3 of males over 60 frequent urination, decreased force of stream, bedwetting & sensation of incomplete emptying Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-61

62 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Trichomoniais - infection from protozoan Chlamydia -- bacteria; asymptomatic, leads to sterility from scar tissue formation Gonorrhea (clap) -- bacteria, discharge common, blindness if newborn is infected during delivery Syphilis -- bacteria, painless sores (chancre), 2nd stage all organs involved, 3rd stage - occurs up to 30 years later / infectious with exposure to blood / organ degeneration is apparent (neurosyphilis) Genital Herpes -- virus, incurable, painful blisters HIV - causes AIDS Genital warts - human papiloma virus / # 1 viral STD Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-62

63 Testicular Cancer Most common cancer in age group one of the most curable Begins as problem with spermatogenic cells within the seminiferous tubules Sign is mass within the testis Regular self-examination is important Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-63

64 Erectile Dysfunction (Impotence) Consistent inability of adult male to hold an erection long enough for sexual intercourse Causes psychological or emotional factors physical factors diabetes mellitus, vascular disturbances, neurological disturbances, testosterone deficiency, drugs (alcohol, nicotine, antidepressants, tranquilizers,etc) Viagra causes vasodilation of penile arteries and brings on an erection Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-64

65 Prostate Cancer Leading male cancer death treatment is surgery, radiation, hormonal and chemotherapy Blood test for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) enzyme of epithelial cells amount increases with enlargement (indication of infection, benign enlargement or cancer) Over 40 yearly rectal exam of prostate gland acute or chronic prostatitis is an infection of prostate causing swelling, tenderness & blockage of urine flow - treat with antibiotics Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-65

66 Endometriosis Growth of endometrial tissue outside of the uterus tissue discharged from open-end of uterine tubes during menstruation can cover ovaries, outer surface of uterus, colon, kidneys and bladder Problem is tissue responds to hormonal changes by proliferating then breaking down & bleeding causes pain, scarring & infertility Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-66

67 Cervical Cancer Starts as cervical dysplasia (change in shape, growth & number of cells) May progress to cervical cancer Detected in Pap smear Linked to genital warts and large number of sexual partners at an early age Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-67

68 Yeast Infection Candida albicans is a yeastlike fungus that grows on mucous membranes Causes vulvovaginal candidiasis or vaginitis inflammation of the vagina severe itching and pain yellow discharge with odor More likely after antibiotic therapy for some other disease Tortora & Grabowski 9/e ã2000 JWS 28-68

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