Diet Quality of Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: Results From a National Survey

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1 Original Article Diet Quality of Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: Results From a National Survey Fang Fang Zhang, MD, PhD 1,2 ; Shanshan Liu, MS, MPH 1 ; Esther M. John, PhD 3 ; Aviva Must, PhD 4 ; and Wendy Demark-Wahnefried, PhD, RD 5 BACKGROUND: Patterns of poor nutritional intake may exacerbate the elevated morbidity experienced by cancer survivors. It remains unclear whether cancer survivors adhere to existing dietary guidelines and whether survivors diets differ from those of individuals without cancer over the long term. METHODS: The authors evaluated dietary intake and quality in 1533 adult cancer survivors who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1999 to 2010 compared with dietary intake and quality in 3075 individuals who had no history of cancer and were matched to the cancer survivors by age, sex, and race/ethnicity. Dietary intake was assessed using 24-hour dietary recalls. The 2010 Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2010) was used to evaluate diet quality. RESULTS: The mean 6 standard deviation HEI-2010 total score was in the cancer survivors and in the noncancer group (P 5.03). Compared with the noncancer group, cancer survivors had a significantly lower score for empty calories (13.6 vs 14.4; P 5.001), which corresponded to worse adherence to dietary intake of calories from solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars. Cancer survivors also had significantly lower dietary intake of fiber than the noncancer group (15.0 vs 15.9 g per day; P 5.02). In relation to recommended intake, survivors mean dietary intake of vitamin D, vitamin E, potassium, fiber, and calcium was 31%, 47%, 55%, 60%, and 73%, respectively; whereas their mean dietary intake of saturated fat and sodium was 112% and 133%, respectively, of the recommended intake. CONCLUSIONS: Cancer survivors had poor adherence to the US Department of Agriculture 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and their intake patterns were worse than those in the general population for empty calories and fiber. Cancer 2015;121: VC 2015 American Cancer Society. KEYWORDS: cancer survivors, diet quality, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, nutrition, quality of life. INTRODUCTION With advancements in cancer screening and treatment, cancer mortality rates continue to decline for most major cancer types in the United States. 1 This translates into a growing cohort of cancer survivors, which is estimated at 13.7 million in However, this success has also brought the recognition that cancer survivors have significantly elevated risks of premature mortality and serious morbidity caused by chronic health conditions. 3 Nutrition plays an important role in the etiology of chronic health conditions and is among the few modifiable behaviors that can prevent or delay their onset. Patterns of poor nutritional intake may exacerbate these morbidities in cancer survivors, whereas healthy dietary patterns may serve a protective function. Identifying nutritional patterns in cancer survivors is a priority for improving the survival and long-term health of this population. It remains unclear whether cancer survivors adhere to existing dietary guidelines, especially long-term, and whether survivors age, sex, cancer type, and years from diagnosis affect their dietary intake. In particular, evidence is lacking from a nationally representative sample of cancer survivors in the United States. The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which cancer survivors who were included in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) adhere to the 2010 US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 4 and whether the diet quality in cancer survivors is better or worse than that in the general population. Corresponding author: Fang Fang Zhang, MD, PhD, Department of Nutrition Science, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 20111; Fax: (617) ; fang_fang.zhang@tufts.edu 1 Department of Nutrition Sciences, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts; 2 Jean Mayer US Department of Agriculture Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts; 3 Cancer Prevention Institute of California, San Francisco, California; 4 Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; 5 Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama. DOI: /cncr.29488, Received: March 8, 2015; Revised: April 29, 2015; Accepted: May 4, 2015, Published online October 13, 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) 4212 Cancer December 1, 2015

2 Diet Quality in Adult Cancer Survivors/Zhang et al MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Population We selected cancer survivors from individuals ages 20 to 79 years who participated in the 6 NHANES cycles ( , , , , , and ). NHANES is a nationally representative, cross-sectional study conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to assess information on health and nutritional status of the noninstitutionalized civilian population in the United States. 5 Cancer survivors were defined as having cancer if they responded to yes to the interview question, Have you even been told by a doctor or other health professional that he/she had cancer or a malignancy of any kind? Individuals with a nonmelanoma or unknown skin cancer were excluded (n 5 438), unless they had an additional form of malignancy. This selection resulted in 1550 cancer survivors. We then randomly selected 3100 individuals from those who did not report a diagnosis of cancer using a 2:1 ratio and matched them to cancer survivors by age group (ages 20-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69, and years), sex, and race/ethnicity (non-hispanic white and others). The National Center for Health Statistics obtained institutional review board approval for all cycles of NHANES. These data have been made available for public use. 6 Dietary Intake Dietary intake for NHANES participants from 1999 to 2010 was assessed using 24-hour dietary recalls obtained by trained interviewers. From 1999 to 2002, one 24-hour diet recall was conducted in person in the NHANES Mobile Examination Center; from 2003 to 2010, a second recall was obtained by telephone interview approximately 3 to 10 days after the first recall. 7 By using an automated multiple-pass method, all foods and beverages consumed during the previous day were recorded. 7 A standard set of measuring guides was used to help the respondent report the volume and dimensions of the food items consumed. Food intakes were coded and nutrient values were determined using the USDA Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies, versions 1.0 through 5.0, 8 which is based on nutrient values in the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release Intakes of nutrients are based on consumption of food and beverages and do not include intake from supplements. Intake according to food group was calculated using the MyPyramid Equivalents Database, version When 2 recalls were available, reported intake was averaged to estimate the mean dietary intake of foods and nutrients. We estimated diet quality by calculating scores on the Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) using the methods provided by the USDA. HEI-2010 measures adherence to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and has 12 components. 11,12 For each component, intakes of foods and nutrients are represented on a density basis and are counted as the amount per 1000 kilocalories (kcal). The 9 adequacy components include total fruit, whole fruit, total vegetables, greens and beans, whole grains, dairy, total protein foods, seafood and plant proteins, and fatty acids, which reflect the ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids. Three moderation components include refined grains, sodium, and empty calories, which reflect calories from solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars. For adequacy components, a score of 0 is assigned for no intake, and the scores increase proportionately as intakes increase up to the recommended intake. For moderation components, levels of intakes at the recommended level are assigned the maximum score, and the scores decrease as intakes increase. The total HEI-2010 score ranges from 0 (nonadherence) to 100 (perfect adherence). A higher score indicates better adherence to the dietary guidelines. Statistical Analyses We first identified 42 individuals who had potentially unreliable dietary intake, defined as total energy intake exceeding 3 standard deviations above and below the mean value of the natural log-transformed energy intake in the noncancer group. After excluding these 42 individuals (17 cancer survivors and 25 in the noncancer group), we compared 1533 cancer survivors and 3075 individuals in the noncancer group with regard to demographic and health-related characteristics, including age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, family income, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and weight status, using analysis of variance for continuous variables and the chi-square test for categorical variables. 13 Race/ethnicity was categorized as non-hispanic white, non-hispanic black, and other. Education level was categorized into 2 groups: high school or less and some college or college graduate. Income level was categorized based on the family income-to-poverty ratio (<130%, 130%-299%, 300%-499%, and 500%). 14 Alcohol drinkers were defined as participants who reported consuming at least 12 drinks per year. Individuals who had consumed at least 12 drinks in any year or in their entire life and had consumed alcohol on at least 1 day in the past year were considered current drinkers, and those who had Cancer December 1,

3 Original Article not were considered nondrinkers. 15 Smokers were defined as participants who reported smoking at least 100 cigarettes during their lifetime; former smokers were defined as participants who reported smoking at least 100 cigarettes but not currently smoking, and current smokers were defined otherwise. For former smokers, the years since they quit smoking were calculated based on the difference between their age when they started smoking and their age at the last time they smoked cigarettes regularly or how long since they quit smoking cigarettes. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated based on measured weight and height using the standard formula (ie, BMI 5 weight [kg]/height [m 2 ]). Weight status was categorized as underweight (BMI <18.5 kg/m 2 ), normal weight (BMI kg/m 2 ), overweight (BMI kg/m 2 ), or obese (BMI 30 kg/m 2 ). Next, we calculated HEI-2010 total scores and component scores for the cancer survivors and the noncancer group and compared mean scores between the 2 groups using analyses of covariance adjusting for age, sex, and race/ethnicity. We further assessed the difference in HEI scores between the cancer survivors and the noncancer group separately for nonsmokers, former smokers, and current smokers. In an attempt to evaluate the extent to which the difference in diet quality was explained by differences in demographic and other risk factors between the cancer survivors and the noncancer group, we performed multivariate logistic regression adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, smoking status and years quitting smoking, and BMI. Diet quality was categorized into 2 groups (high vs low) based on the median score in the noncancer group. An odds ratio (OR) <1.00 corresponded to lower diet quality in the cancer survivors compared with the noncancer group. Results were compared in logistic regression models with and without adjusting for smoking status and years quitting smoking. Among cancer survivors, we assessed whether the HEI-2010 total score differed according to survivors demographic and health-related characteristics, years from cancer diagnosis, and cancer type using analyses of variance. Years from cancer diagnosis were calculated based on the interval between the time of diagnosis and the time of the interview. We then evaluated whether dietary intake of nutrients (macronutrients, micronutrients, and minerals) differed in the group of cancer survivors and the noncancer group using analyses of covariance adjusting for age, sex, and race/ethnicity; in addition, we compared the dietary intake of nutrients in both the survivor group and the noncancer group with the recommended intake by calculating the percentage of mean intake to the recommended intake Recommended intake was based on the Institute of Medicine s dietary reference intakes (DRIs). 16 Dietary guideline recommendations were used when no quantitative DRI values were available. 4 Because the recommended intake is age-specific and sex-specific, we estimated a summary recommendation intake using age-specific and sex-specific DRI weighted by the age and sex distribution of the study population. Sampling weights were adjusted in all analyses to account for the complex sampling design of NHANES. The statistical software package SAS version 9.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) was used for all analyses. RESULTS The mean 6 standard deviation age of the 1533 cancer survivors was years, and the mean 6 standard deviation interval from diagnosis was years. The 4 major cancer types (breast, prostate, colorectal, and lung) accounted for 43% of all cancers included. Most of the survivors were women (66%) and were non- Hispanic whites (83%). About half had completed at least some college, and half had family income-topoverty ratios 300%. About 70% of the survivors reported alcohol consumption on at least 1 day in the past year, and roughly 60% reported smoking at least 100 cigarettes in their lifetime. The mean BMI was 28.9 kg/m 2, and 70% of the survivors were overweight or obese. None of the survivors were underweight. Cancer survivors and individuals in the noncancer group had similar age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, family income, alcohol consumption, and weight status, but cancer survivors were significantly more like to be current and former smokers than individuals without a history of cancer (Table 1). After adjusting for age, sex, and race/ethnicity, cancer survivors had a significantly lower mean HEI-2010 total score than individuals in the noncancer group (47.2 vs 48.3; P 5.03) (Table 2). Of the individual components, cancer survivors had a significantly lower mean score for empty calories (13.6 vs 14.4; P 5.001), which are aligned with higher consumption of calories from solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars. Stratified analyses in which differences in HEI scores between the cancer survivor group and the noncancer group were evaluated separately according to smoking status (Table 3) indicated no significant difference between nonsmokers and former smokers (mean difference in HEI-2010 total score: nonsmokers, 0.5 [P 5.59]; former smokers, 20.8 [P 5.28]). However, in current smokers, cancer survivors had significantly lower diet quality than the noncancer group, and 4214 Cancer December 1, 2015

4 Diet Quality in Adult Cancer Survivors/Zhang et al TABLE 1. Characteristics of Adult Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a No. (%) Characteristic Cancer Group, N Noncancer Group, N P Age, y Mean 6 SD (12.9) 331 (11.7) (13.8) 322 (14.3) (20.2) 467 (21.5) (27) 887 (26.1) (26) 1068 (26.5) Sex Women 898 (65.6) 1799 (64.7).65 Men 635 (34.5) 1276 (35.3) Race/ethnicity Non-Hispanic white 983 (83.4) 1978 (84.6).22 Non-Hispanic black 284 (8) 420 (6.6) Other 266 (8.6) 677 (8.9) Education High school graduate 823 (45.3) 1708 (46.2).22 Some college or college graduate 709 (54.7) 1359 (53.8) Family income-to-poverty ratio, % < (19) 785 (17.3) (24.4) 947 (29.4) (23.4) 578 (23.2) > (25.4) 519 (23.4) Missing 122 (7.8) 246 (6.6) Alcohol intake Drinkers 993 (69.5) 1944 (68).43 Nondrinkers 478 (30.5) 973 (32) Smoking status Current smokers 299 (20.8) 527 (17.2) <.0001 Former smokers 612 (38.8) 1047 (32.3) Nonsmokers 621 (40.4) 1499 (50.5) BMI, kg/m 2 Mean 6 SD (30) 776 (28.7) (34.2) 1106 (36) (35.8) 1102 (35.3) Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; SD, standard deviation. a Weighted frequencies are presented. the difference was statistically significant (mean difference, 22.9; P 5.002). The mean HEI-2010 total score in cancer survivors increased linearly with age (Pearson correlation coefficient, 0.12; P <.0001). Among survivors, men and women had similar mean HEI-2010 total scores (47.6 vs 48.3, respectively; P 5.49). Survivors who had received some college or a college education had significantly higher HEI-2010 total scores than survivors who were less educated (50.0 vs 45.7; P <.0001). Current smokers (mean HEI-2010 total score, 40.8) had significantly lower diet quality than former smokers (mean HEI-2010 total score, 48.3) and nonsmokers (mean HEI-2010 total score, 51.6; P <.0001). For the 4 major cancer types evaluated, breast cancer survivors (mean HEI-2010 total score, 51.1) had the best diet quality, whereas lung cancer survivors had the worst (mean HEI-2010 total score, 43.5) compared with other the cancer types (P and P 5.002, respectively). Diet quality did not differ significantly by race/ethnicity, weight status, alcohol consumption, or years from diagnosis (Fig. 1). For individual nutrients and minerals, the cancer survivor group had a significantly lower mean intake of fiber than the noncancer group (mean fiber intake, 15.0 vs 15.9 g/day, respectively; P 5.02) (Table 4). However, the percentage of fiber intake in relation to recommendations was low in both cancer survivors and unaffected individuals (59.7% and 63.3%, respectively) (Fig. 2). Cancer survivors had significantly lower intake of vitamin K (90.3 vs mg/day; P 5.02) than noncancer individuals, although a high percentage from both groups met recommended levels. No significant differences were observed between the 2 groups for other nutrients. However, survivors had low intake of vitamin D (31%), Cancer December 1,

5 Original Article TABLE 2. Healthy Eating Index-2010 Scores in Adult Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Mean 6 SD HEI-2010 Maximum Score Standard for Maximum Score Standard for Minimum Score of 0 Cancer Group, N Noncancer Group, N P a Adequacy components Total vegetables, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal Greens and beans, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal No vegetables No dark green vegetables or beans and peas Total fruit, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal No fruit Whole fruit, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal No whole fruit Whole grains, oz equivalent per 1000 kcal No whole grains Dairy, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal No dairy Total protein foods, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal No protein foods Seafood and plant protein, cup equivalent No seafood or per 1000 kcal plant proteins Fatty acids, (PURAs 1 MUFAs)/SFAs < Moderation components Sodium, g per 1000 kcal Refined grains, cup equivalent per 1000 kcal Empty calories, % of energy Total HEI score Abbreviations: HEI-2010, Healthy Eating Index-2010; kcal, kilocalories; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; SD, standard deviation; SFAs, saturated fatty acids. a P values are adjusted for age (continuous), sex, and race/ethnicity (non-hispanic white, non-hispanic black, and other). vitamin E (47%), potassium (55%), and calcium (73%) and had high intake of saturated fat (112%) and sodium (133%) in relation to the recommended levels. DISCUSSION In this study, which represents 1 of the few populationbased studies of nutrient intake in cancer survivors compared with unaffected, matched controls, data suggest that cancer survivors have poor adherence to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Cancer survivors consumed significantly more empty calories than individuals without a history of cancer. Cancer survivors also had low dietary intake of fiber, vitamin D, vitamin E, potassium, and calcium but high intake of saturated fat and sodium in relation to recommended intake levels in the dietary guidelines. Poor dietary intake has been reported previously in other cohorts of cancer survivors. 17,18 For example, <15% of the 9105 cancer survivors in the American Cancer Society s Studies of Cancer Survivors II met the recommended intake of 5 daily servings of fruits and vegetables. 17 Other than intake of vegetables and fruits, the adequacy of nutrient intake has not been extensively studied. Accurately assessing nutrient intake is hindered by measurement errors that often are associated with the use of food-frequency questionnaires. 19,20 Our study is 1 of the few that has assessed diet quality and detailed nutrient intake in this population using 24-hour dietary recalls. Moreover, the NHANES offers a detailed examination for nutrient intake in a representative sample of the US population, thereby assuring the generalizability of our findings. Specifically, we observed that cancer survivors had worse diet quality and adherence to empty calories than the general population. If replicated, this may suggest that reducing the consumption of empty calories is an important target for dietary interventions in cancer survivors. Although other components of diet quality appeared to be similar between our cancer survivors and the noncancer group, the component score was <50% of the maximum score for several components, such as greens and beans (22% of the maximum score) and whole grains (17% of the maximum score). Cancer survivors also had inadequate intakes of fiber, vitamin D, calcium, magnesium, and potassium but excessive intake of saturated fat and sodium. Because some of these intake patterns are established risk factors for cardiovascular disease, obesity, and bone health, it is important to further investigate whether these intake patterns contribute to elevated morbidity and mortality in this population, so that targeted dietary interventions can be implemented. Cancer survivors experience elevated morbidity and excessive morality 4216 Cancer December 1, 2015

6 Diet Quality in Adult Cancer Survivors/Zhang et al TABLE 3. Difference in Healthy Eating Index-2010 Scores Among Adult Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals by Smoking Status: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Nonsmokers, N Former Smokers, N Current Smokers, N HEI-2010 Mean Score a P Mean Score a P Mean Score a P Adequacy components Total vegetables Greens and beans Total fruit Whole fruit Whole grains Dairy Total protein foods Seafood and plant protein Fatty acids Moderation components Sodium Refined grains Empty calories Total HEI score Abbreviation: HEI-2010, Healthy Eating Index a The mean was calculated as the mean difference in HEI-2010 score between cancer survivors and noncancer individuals, and a mean difference <0 corresponds to a lower score in cancer survivors compared with noncancer individuals. The mean difference was adjusted for age (continuous), sex, and race/ethnicity (non-hispanic white, non-hispanic black, and other). Figure 1. Total scores on the Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) are illustrated for adult cancer survivors according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( ) by age, race/ethnicity, education, cigarette smoking, body mass index (BMI), years from diagnosis, and cancer type. For race/ethnicity, white refers to non-hispanic whites, and black refers to non-hispanic blacks. For education, low refers to high school or less, and high refers to some college or college graduate. compared with the general population. Interventions that improve diet quality, even to a small extent, may play important roles in improving the long-term health of this vulnerable population. We also observed that cancer survivors had poor diet quality regardless of the interval from diagnosis. However, NHANES data are cross-sectional, and longitudinal studies are required to further assess whether positive dietary changes that occur soon after cancer diagnosis persist into long-term survivorship. To our knowledge, whether survivors with various cancer types have different diet quality has not been previously investigated. Among the 4 major cancer types in the United States, we observed that breast cancer survivors had the best diet quality, whereas Cancer December 1,

7 Original Article TABLE 4. Dietary Intake in Adult Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Mean 6 SD Intake Nutrient Cancer Group, N Noncancer Group, N P a Macronutrients Protein, g % Calories Carbohydrate, g % Calories Fiber, g Total fat, % calories Saturated fat, % calories Cholesterol, mg Micronutrients Vitamin A, mcg RAE Vitamin D, mcg b Vitamin E, mg AT Vitamin C, mg Thiamin, mg Riboflavin, mg Niacin, mg Folate, mcg b Vitamin B 6, mg Vitamin B 12, mcg Vitamin K, mcg b Minerals Calcium, mg Iron, mg Magnesium, mg Phosphorus, mg Potassium, mg Sodium, mg Zinc, mg Copper, mg Selenium, mcg Abbreviations: AT, a-tocopherol; mcg, micrograms; RAE, retinol activity equivalents; SD, standard deviation. a P values are adjusted for age (continuous), sex, and race/ethnicity (non- Hispanic white, non-hispanic black, and other). b Dietary intakes for folate and vitamin K were estimated from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cycles 2003 through 2010, and dietary intake of vitamin D was estimated from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cycles 2007 to 2010, because data on dietary intake of these nutrients were not available in previous National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cycles. lung cancer survivors had the worst diet quality compared with survivors who had other cancer types. Although the existing evidence focuses mostly on breast cancer survivors, there is clearly a need to further study the dietary intake and nutritional status of survivors with other cancer types. Because current smokers had poor diet quality, and cancer survivors were more likely to be current smokers than individuals without cancer, we further evaluated whether the difference in diet quality between cancer survivors and noncancer individuals remained after controlling for smoking status. In multivariate logistic regression Figure 2. Dietary intakes of adult cancer survivors and of individuals without a history of cancer are illustrated based on data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( ). Dark gray bars indicate cancer survivors, and hatched bars indicate the noncancer group. The lengths of bars for each nutrient correspond to the percentage of mean intake to the recommended intake Recommended intake is based on the dietary reference intake published by the Institute of Medicine. 16 Dietary guideline recommendations were used when no quantitative dietary reference intake value was available. Nutritional goals are set at 100 when the mean intake reaches the recommended intake. analyses adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, and BMI, also controlling for smoking status slightly reduced the associations indicating worse diet quality in the cancer survivors than in the noncancer group (before adjusting for smoking status: OR, 0.82; 95% confidence interval, ; P 5.01; after adjusting for smoking status: OR, 0.86; 95% confidence interval, ; P 5.06) (Table 5). This suggests that the difference in diet quality between cancer survivors and those without cancer may be explained in part, but not completely, by the difference in smoking status. In stratified analyses, cancer survivors who were current smokers had significantly lower diet quality than individuals in the noncancer group, and they may represent a particularly high-risk population that can benefit from dietary intervention Cancer December 1, 2015

8 Diet Quality in Adult Cancer Survivors/Zhang et al TABLE 5. Multivariate Logistic Regression Model of Healthy Eating Index-2010 Scores in Adult Cancer Survivors and Noncancer Individuals: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a No. (%) Adjusted Analyses HEI-2010 Score Cancer Group, N Noncancer Group, N OR [95% CI] b OR [95% CI] c Total vegetables < (49.5) 1531 (49.8) (50.5) 1544 (50.2) 0.96 [ ] 0.98 [ ] Greens and beans (63.7) 1957 (63.6) >0 556 (36.3) 1118 (36.4) 0.96 [ ] 1.00 [ ] Total fruit < (48.6) 1534 (49.9) (51.4) 1541 (50.1) 0.95 [ ] 1.00 [ ] Whole fruit < (48.1) 1533 (50) (51.9) 1542 (50) 0.95 [ ] 1.00 [ ] Whole grains < (48.1) 1532 (49.8) (51.9) 1543 (50.2) 0.90 [ ] 0.93 [ ] Dairy < (47.4) 1532 (49.8) (52.6) 1543 (50.2) 1.03 [ ] 1.05 [ ] Total protein food < (46.8) 1543 (49.9) (53.2) 1541 (50.1) 1.07 [ ] 1.08 [ ] Seafood and plant protein < (48.6) 1533 (49.9) (51.4) 1542 (50.1) 0.97 [ ] 0.99 [ ] Fatty acid ratio < (49.9) 1536 (50) (50.1) 1539 (50) 0.96 [ ] 0.98 [ ] Refined grains < (50.1) 1537 (50) (49.9) 1538 (50) 0.98 [ ] 0.96 [ ] Sodium < (50.8) 1541 (50.1) (49.2) 1534 (49.9) 1.01 [ ] 1.00 [ ] Empty calories < (54.4) 1542 (50.2) (45.6) 1533 (49.8) 0.85 [ ] 0.88 [ ] Total < (51.3) 1535 (49.9) (48.7) 1540 (50.1) 0.82 [ ] 0.86 [ ] Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; HEI-2010, Healthy Eating Index-2010; OR, odds ratio. a Cutoff values for HEI-2010 components were based on the median scores in the noncancer group. b Analyses were adjusted for age (continuous), sex, race/ethnicity (non-hispanic white, non-hispanic black, and other), education (high school graduate/less and some college/college graduate), and body mass index (continuous). c Analyses were also adjusted for smoking (nonsmokers, former smokers, and current smokers) and years quitting smoking (continuous). Older survivors had a significantly better diet quality than younger survivors. This age effect has been supported by previous studies in cancer survivors, which may partly reflect better dietary habits in older than younger generations (ie, a cohort effect). Younger survivors have longer life expectancy, and the impact of a healthy diet on their long-term health is likely to be greater than that on older survivors. Survivors with lower education, as expected, had lower diet quality than those with higher education, and survivors who were current smokers had a lower diet quality than nonsmokers or former smokers. These findings corroborate those from other studies, which reported similar trends, 18,24 suggesting the need to improve diet quality in young survivors, survivors from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and those who are currently smoking. Overweight survivors appeared to have better diet quality than survivors who either had normal weight or were obese, but the difference was not statistically significant. In contrast, 2 previous studies in breast cancer survivors reported a linear relation between diet quality and BMI. 21,25 However, our results were not completely surprising, because advanced cancer stage can cause weight loss, and being overweight may partly reflect an overall Cancer December 1,

9 Original Article better health status in cancer survivors. Contrary to previous studies that reported differences in diet quality according to sex and race/ethnicity in cancer survivors (ie, women tended to have a better diet quality than men, and non-hispanic whites tended to have a better diet quality than other racial/ethnic groups), 21,26 we did not observe that the diet quality of cancer survivors differed significantly according to sex or race/ethnicity. Although our study has numerous strengths (eg, a population-based study with a large sample size and collection of data using validated measures), there are some limitations that need to be considered. First, cancer diagnosis is based on self-report and may be associated with misclassification. However, because cancer is a lifethreatening life event, we expect any reporting errors to be minimal. Second, cancer stage and treatment may affect survivors dietary intake through complex pathways. Such information was not captured by NHANES, and we were not able to evaluate the impact of cancer stage and treatment on diet quality in cancer survivors. Third, because of the cross-sectional nature of the NHANES study design, we were not able to assess whether cancer survivors changed their dietary intake after their cancer diagnosis or whether changes in dietary intake persisted into later years. In addition, the sample size limitation did not allow us to evaluate trends in dietary intake and diet quality over various cycles of NHANES in cancer survivors. Despite these limitations, to our knowledge, our study is the first study assessing dietary intake in cancer survivors from a nationally representative sample of the US population. We observed that cancer survivors had poor adherence to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and their intake patterns were worse than those in the general population for empty calories and fiber. These findings reinforce the need for dietary interventions in this vulnerable patient population. Oncology care providers play an important role in reinforcing the importance of a healthful diet and can refer patients to registered dietitians who are experts in oncology care or to other reputable sources to improve survivors overall health. 27 FUNDING SUPPORT All phases of this study were supported by a Boston Nutrition Obesity Research Center grant (P30DK46200), a grant from the National Center for Research Resources (UL1 RR025752), the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, the National Institutes of Health (UL1 TR000073), and Tufts Collaborates Grant. The funding sources had no role in the design, conduct, or analysis of this study or the decision to submit the article for publication. CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES The authors made no disclosures. REFERENCES 1. Lerro CC, Stein KD, Smith T, Virgo KS. 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