Carbon and Organic Compounds

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1 Carbon and Organic Compounds BIO Unit 2 Semester II Name Teacher Hr

2 CARBON The Element We Can t Live Without! (Read and take notes on the following concept map. You may use this on your reading check effort quiz) Characteristics of Carbon All living things are made up of carbon-containing molecules. Organic chemistry is the name given to the study of carbon compounds, of which there are over six million compounds, with another hundred thousand new ones added each year. 12 As you learned last year, carbon atoms have six electrons, including four in the outer shell. Because carbon has 4 valence electrons, it is difficult for carbon atoms to both obtain an empty outer shell by giving up those four electrons, or to obtain a filled shell by taking four electrons from other atoms. Instead, carbon atoms usually share electrons with other atoms, and thus form covalent bonds. Carbon is not unique in having four valence electrons for bonding purposes; silicon, selenium, tellurium, and polonium also have four valence electrons (because they are in Group IV). However, carbon s smaller size allows it to form covalent bonds more easily. Carbon atoms will often bond with other C atoms to form very long chains. The chains may be branched and even ring-shaped, involving numerous other atoms with all kinds of bonding combinations. In fact, single organic molecules exist that contain over 1,000 C atoms all linked together in a long chain! Carbon in Organic Compounds A chain of 10 C atoms can be arranged in 75 different ways. If this is true, can you imagine how many possible ways there are to arrange 15 carbon atoms? The answer is over 4,000 different arrangements! CH 4 It is these long, often branching chains of carbon atoms that make up familiar things like teflon, nylon, polyethylene, silk, bubble gum, and more importantly for you the fats, proteins, and carbohydrates that are in the food you eat and in your body. Oddly enough, carbon is not one of the most abundant elements in our earth s crust in fact less than one percent of the earth s crust is carbon. It is, however, the element of life and possibly the main character in the story of how life began.

3 13 Let s stop and think for a minute where do all of the C atoms come from that make up these large organic molecules? The answer is simple an inorganic gas called carbon dioxide (CO2). As you may know, CO2 is taken up by plants and algae, and converted into larger organic molecules in a process called photosynthesis. Before understanding this process, however, we will take a closer look at plants, algae, and the organisms that feed off of them (Mmmm...food). The Carbon Cycle As you already read, living things are made of C-containing molecules. Plants, algae, and some types of bacteria are known as producers. Producers provide the carbon that other living things need because they have the ability to take CO2 from the air and recycle it into a form of carbon that is used for food by consumers. Consumers are organisms such as deer, chickens and cattle that feed strictly on producers. They are also organisms such as humans, lions and hawks that feed upon other consumers. The bottom line is that consumers cannot produce their own C- containing molecules (food) because they cannot directly use the CO2 from the atmosphere. The carbon cycle is not 100% efficient at each step. As producers convert CO2 into a form of carbon that is taken up by consumers, they use lots of energy. This means that less energy is available to the consumers that eat the producers. In fact, only 10% of the energy that producers store is passed to the first-level consumers (such as mice). A second-level consumer (such as a hawk) would only get 1% of the original amount that was stored up by the producers. And the fox (a thirdlevel consumer) that eats the hawk, would gain only 0.1% of that original stored energy. Let s follow the pathway of carbon to you. Think about the last piece of pizza you ate. The flour in the crust came from wheat (a producer). The milk in the cheese came from a cow (a consumer). Can you calculate

4 14 what percentage of the original energy YOU gained from the producers in this example? Now, think about where all the C-containing molecules go that you eat for lunch. Do they continue to accumulate in your body and never leave? Does this mean that someday the producers will use up all the CO2 in the atmosphere and will basically starve to death, leaving us and the other consumers to starve too? Thankfully, the carbon that exists in our world is naturally recycled. This recycling happens in two ways. First, whenever an organism uses a carbon compound for energy, the carbon is combined with O2 from the air to make CO2 (this process is called cellular respiration you ll hear more about this later). The CO2 is then released back into the air and can then be taken up again by producers. Don t be fooled by the classification of producers and consumers all living organisms release CO2 when they use C molecules for energy. The other way that C is recycled comes into play after organisms die. After death, there is still a lot of C locked up in the dead organism, which is then recycled by decomposers. These decomposers such as worms, fungi, bacteria, insects and protists use the C molecules for their own needs, which eventually breaks them down into CO2. Producers can then use this CO2 to form new carbon compounds. An ecosystem is a collection of all the living things in a particular place together with their non-living environmental surroundings. A healthy ecosystem requires a balance of producers, consumers and decomposers. Too often humans have learned the hard way the price of upsetting this balance. By over-fishing and over-hunting, draining wetlands, destroying forests and polluting lakes, streams, oceans and the air, we have found that nature s balance is delicate and that tampering with it can lead to disaster. Soon we will look at a specific example of how human activities have upset this balance as we examine the greenhouse effect.

5 CARBON The Element We Can t Live Without! Take notes on the following main ideas. Be sure to make complete thoughts. 15 Characteristics of CARBON CARBON in Organic Compounds CARBON The CARBON Cycle Energy Transfer is part of the Carbon Cycle Energy Transfer in Ecosystems (producers, consumers, and decomposers)

6 16 Global Warming Video Reflection #1522 (60 min) Read the following questions about Global Warming before you watch the video. After the video, answer the questions in complete sentences. What is Global Warming? (Do not confuse this with the Greenhouse Effect!) 2. What are some of the causes of Global Warming? (Remember, a CAUSE is something that produces an effect or is responsible for events or results.) 3. What are some of the effects of Global Warming? (Remember, an EFFECT is a phenomenon that happens as a result of the cause.) 4. What are three activities that YOU do in a day that directly or indirectly put more Greenhouse Gases into the atmosphere? a. b. c. 5. What thing(s) could you do to reduce the amount of this greenhouse gas that you create?

7 CO2 AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT CO2 is important as a building block for photosynthesis in plants, but it has another important role as well. Although CO2 makes up less than 1% of the air, it is a major factor in maintaining the temperature of the earth. Sunlight easily passes through the CO2 in the air and warms the surface of the earth. This energy would quickly bounce back into space as it rises from the earth s surface, but CO2 and a few other gases trap it close to the earth and keep the temperature warmer than if the gases were not there in the air. These gases act like the glass in a greenhouse by letting in sunlight and trapping heat energy so that it can t get back out of the atmosphere. Because of this fact, they are called greenhouse gases and the warming they cause is called the greenhouse effect. It is important to realize that the greenhouse effect has been around long before humans inhabited the earth, and it is necessary for all life on earth (picture 1). Our planet would be too cold for most living things without the greenhouse effect. Many scientists, however, have gathered data, which shows that human activities are increasing the greenhouse effect and therefore increasing the temperature of the earth a phenomenon called global warming (picture 2). Whenever we burn organic molecules such as gasoline, oil, natural gas, coal, or wood, the carbon in these molecules is combined with O2 in the air to form CO2. Before the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s, producers like plants and algae were able to use enough of the CO2 in the air to keep its levels in the air fairly constant. In other words, the carbon cycle was in balance. 17 (Picture 1) (Picture 2) Since the Industrial Revolution we have found a multitude of ways to use machines to do work for us. Most of these machines burn carbon-based fuels and give off CO2; moreover, since the burning of coal creates electricity, even machines or appliances that run off this electricity indirectly give off CO2. As a result we now pour huge quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere which amounts to billions of tons per year worldwide. This is much more than the producers of the world can absorb, and therefore the level of CO2 is about 25% higher now than before the Industrial Revolution! This is an astounding difference for such a short time.

8 18 Other human activities have also contributed to the rise in CO2 concentration. The trees of the earth s forests and the algae of the oceans are the strongest agents for removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Presently, humans are destroying forests and polluting oceans at a tremendous rate and thus, eliminating nature s means of recycling carbon. Many scientists believe that as CO2 levels rise, more heat energy will be trapped near the earth and result in a significant rise in the average temperatures around the globe. Average temperatures have already risen 2 0 F in the last 100 years. The predictions are that if the CO2 levels double, this would amount in a rise of 5 0 F. Although that does not sound like a great increase, consider that during the last great ice age, average temperatures were only 10 degrees cooler than they are now! And, remember how heat is a measurement of all the energies of the molecules. Therefore if the temperature increases slightly, the total amount of energy that the molecules have is GREAT! Overall, global temperature increases of only a few degrees will bring about significant changes around the world. As the temperature of the oceans rise, the volume of water in them will expand and the polar ice caps may partly melt and cause sea levels around the globe to rise. This will flood many coastal areas, where large numbers of people live. Rainfall patterns will probably change with some areas getting more rain and others getting less. Weather patterns will be drastically changed as well. There are other instances throughout earth s history when the average temperatures have risen and at times were even hotter than then are today. Therefore, some people would argue that global warming is natural and humans are not to blame. However, the fact that the earth has warmed so quickly since the Industrial Revolution strongly suggests that we are having a large negative impact on our own ecosystems, and this may one day come back to haunt us. Post-reading big ideas: Explain how CO2 gas in the air contributes to the greenhouse effect. 2. Describe at least TWO ways in which we (humans) have increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. 3. How does an increase in global temperature affect global climate?

9 Computer Lab Activity: Global Warming 19 Go to On the left hand side of the webpage, there are 8 different directory tabs. You will use these tabs to navigate around the website and collect information to answer the following questions. Below is a set of specific directions to guide you through this activity. Follow them carefully. Introduction: Click on the introduction tab on the left hand side of the webpage and read about global climate change. Describe how the South Cascade Glacier in Washington State is evidence of global climate change. Global Warming Home: On the right hand side of the screen are four activities. Click on the activity labeled A Century of Change. Then click continue. The new window that opens up will display a graph and a world map. You can close this world map by clicking the green hide map button on the lower right hand corner. Use the graph to answer the following questions. 2. What information is being displayed on the graph? (look at the title) 3. What does the RED LINE represent on the graph? 4. What does the BLUE LINE represent on the graph? 5. Describe what happens to the temperature between What is the average temperature during that decade? 6. How would you describe the overall trend in temperature change from ? 7. Describe the overall trend in CO2 Concentration from

10 8. Do you see any correlation between temperature change and CO2 concentration? Describe this relationship by referring to data/trends from the graph. BE SPECIFIC! 20 Global Warming Home: Go back to this page and click on the activity labeled A Changing Future. Then click continue. Use the graph to answer the following questions: 9. What information is being displayed on the graph? (look at the title) 10. Much like the last graph, there is a line for CO2 concentration. However, unlike the previous graph, there are two lines that display predicted temperatures. Where (what sources) do these two models come from? 1 Why may there be two different sets of data for the predicted global temperature change? Causes of Change: Click on the Causes of Change tab. Choose one of the eight major causes of global temperature change (shown in blue) and read the one page explanation of that specific cause. 12. The cause of global temperature change that I picked is: 13. Is this phenomenon a result of natural causes, human causes, or both? 14. Summarize how this phenomenon operates, as well as how it affects global climate. (List compounds, chemicals, activities, etc., that are directly or indirectly involved.)

11 21 CARBON THE ELEMENT OF LIFE I The Diversity and Occurrence of Carbon in Nature A. Inorganic forms 2. Examples: a. b. c. II B. Organic forms 2. Examples: a. b. c. Structure of the carbon atom 2. Bonding possibilities 2. 3.

12 Carbon Notes, continued A. Isomers Examples: Formula: C2H6O B. Practice drawing isomers: Formula: C3H8O Formula: C6H14O Formula: C3H4O

13 23 Carbon Questions Use your Carbon notes to answer these questions. What is the difference between inorganic and organic compounds? 2. In terms of types of atoms, what is the difference between the following: a. Carbohydrates b. Proteins c. Hydrocarbons 3. What property of carbon atoms makes possible the large number of compounds that exist in nature? 4. Draw a carbon tetrahedron for CH4. 5. What is special about C in Group IV that allows it to form long chain molecules? 6. Write in the number of bonds that each of the following atoms will make when they form covalent bonds. a. H b. O c. C 7. What does a dash (-) represent in a structural formula such as: H H H H

14 24 8. Hydrocarbon compounds contain only C and H. Three of these compounds acetylene, ethylene, and ethane have the empirical formulas C2H2, C2H4, and C2H6 respectively. Draw the structural formulas for these compounds (Hint: You may need to draw more than one bond between some of the carbons). C 2 H 2 C 2 H 4 C 2 H 6 9. A certain organic compound is formed from the bonding of 2 carbon atoms, 1 oxygen atom and 6 hydrogen atoms. Draw at least two different structural formulas that represent this compound. 10. Are the chemical properties of the two compounds that you drew in question 9 identical? Why or why not? 1 What term is used to describe compounds like the ones in question 9? 12. Explain why life as we know it could not be possible if the chemistry of life depended only on inorganic compounds?

15 Video Carbon (27 minutes) #1275 (1 st of 2 on the tape) Read these questions before you see the video, and then answer them after you have watched the video. You may want to make notes as you watch. Explain what makes carbon such a unique element in living things Describe some of the uses for carbon in industry and our daily lives.

16 BASIC BIOCHEMISTRY - THE CHEMISTRY OF LIVING THINGS 26 Introduction Biochemistry! I can t learn biochemistry. That s really hard! You can do it. Although many different compounds are found in living things, and many of them are large and complex, we can make sense of all of them if we organize them into a four major groups proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids. We will be examining a few main ideas about these groups of compounds: a) What elements they are made of b) What the structures of the molecules are like c) What they are used for in the human body Because these compounds are essential for life, we will be talking about them throughout this semester and you will become more and more comfortable with them as we go along. So give it a try and you ll find biochemistry is not so hard after all! Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are made of three elements oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. The carbon atoms form the backbone of the molecule and the oxygen and hydrogen atoms are attached to the carbon. The smallest carbohydrates are simple sugars, called monosaccharides. (The name means one sugar ). Glucose is the most important monosaccharide in living things and is shown on the left. The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In glucose, as in all carbohydrates, we find that for each carbon there is generally two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen, as if each carbon has a water molecule (H2O). That s where the name carbohydrate comes from hydrated carbon. Simple sugars, especially glucose, are important sources of energy in the cells of living things. Whenever a cell in our body needs energy to do something like move, grow, or make new molecules, glucose is combined with oxygen and energy is released. This process, called cellular respiration, is a lot like a steam engine. Coal is burnt to provide energy for a steam engine to run. However, cellular respiration happens more slowly and at lower temperatures than the burning of coal. We will learn more about this later. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form long chains known as polysaccharides (meaning many sugars ). Some important carbohydrates are long chains of glucose molecules. Starch (the same stuff we get from pasta, potatoes, or bread) is made by plant cells and is a plant s way of storing glucose. (Animal cells make a molecule similar to plant starch called glycogen.) In the diagram on the next page, you can see that the carbon atoms at each corner of the hexagon are assumed to be there but are not written in. Look at the figure to the left. This is a chain of many glucose monomers bonded together. This polymer is called Starch!

17 27 Cellulose is another example of a long chain of glucose molecules. Cellulose is the rigid material in plant cell walls. (Cellulose that we eat is known as fiber. Since we can t digest it, cellulose passes through our digestive tract, and is considered helpful for a healthy digestive system.) The only difference in structure between, starch, glycogen, and cellulose is the type of bond between the glucose molecules. This is enough to account for the very different chemical properties of these three compounds. Some important carbohydrates are medium-size combinations of different simple sugars. A molecule that is made of two monosaccharides is called a disaccharide. A common example is sucrose, the type of sugar we get at the grocery store. Another disaccharide is lactose, a sugar that is found in milk. If a molecule has three monosaccharides it is called a trisaccharide. Lipids The disaccharide sucrose is a combination of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. Lipids are made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, just like carbohydrates. The basic building blocks of lipids are a glycerol molecule (a three-carbon compound), and two or three long-chained fatty acids attached to the glycerol. A complete lipid + 3 Since all lipids contain glycerol, the differences between lipids are due to the different fatty acids that are attached to the glycerol. Since lipids do not dissolve in water, they are ideal for their role as the main component of cell membranes. The bi-lipid membrane forms a barrier between the inside and the outside of living cells. Lipids are also important for energy storage in both plants and animals. You are probably familiar with many common lipids. These are the fats that we get from animals and the oils we get from plants. Animal fats tend to be solids at room temperature. Examples of animal fats are butter, made from cow s milk, and lard and bacon fat, which come from pigs. The term saturated fat is used to refer to animal fat. This term refers to the fact that the fatty acids in the tail region have as many hydrogen atoms on them that they can possibly hold they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. Lipids, which come from plants, tend to be liquids at room temperature. We call them oils. Examples are the many oils we use for cooking, like corn oil, peanut oil, olive oil and sunflower oil. The reason they tend to be different from animal fats with respect to melting points is that they tend to be unsaturated fats. That is, they do not have as

18 28 many hydrogen atoms as they could possibly have. The reason for this is that some carbons are linked together with double bonds. If a carbon has two bonds with another carbon, it has one fewer bond that it can make with a different atom, like hydrogen. (Recall that each carbon atom can form only four bonds.) Proteins Proteins are also made of the elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, with the addition of nitrogen. These atoms are arranged into molecules called amino acids. As we learned earlier, amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Just as polysaccharides are made of long chains of simple sugars, proteins are made of long chains of amino acids. Example Amino Acid Amine Group Acid Group Amino acids get their name from the fact that they have an amine group (NH2) and an acid group (COOH) attached to the molecule. It is the rest of the molecule that makes one amino acid different from another. There are twenty different kinds of amino acids. Recall that the thousands of different proteins that are found in living things are made from different combinations of those twenty amino acids. When amino acids are linked together, the acid group of one is connected to the amine group of another in a special type of bond called a peptide bond. Two amino acids linked together are called a dipeptide, three amino acids make a tripeptide, and many amino acids put together make a polypeptide. Polypeptides are combined to make proteins. Peptide bonds between amino acids Protein molecule Proteins serve many vital functions in living things. In the membranes surrounding cells, proteins control what goes into and out of the cell. In muscle cells, long protein fibers slide back and forth along one another to make the muscles contract or relax. In our red blood cells, a protein called hemoglobin binds oxygen and carries it

19 29 around to wherever it is needed. Proteins called enzymes catalyze (speed up) nearly every chemical reaction in a living cell. That means that proteins control how fast chemical reactions happen. They are the workhorse molecules of living things. Wherever there is work being done inside a living cell, there is probably a protein there making it happen. Each protein is designed to do a specific task. Earlier we learned that the shape of the protein molecule determines what it does, and this shape depends on which amino acids are in the protein and in what order they appear. If you mix up the order or substitute an incorrect amino acid, the protein will no longer be able to do its specific job. Nucleic Acids The term nucleic acid may be the least familiar to many of us, but we have all heard of DNA or RNA. The NA in both cases stands for nucleic acid. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and the RNA is ribonucleic acid. Nucleic acids are made from the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Nucleic acids are made of long chains of smaller molecules called building blocks. The building blocks in this case are called nucleotides. Every living thing is different from another because it each contains different proteins; and it is the nucleic acids that determine what proteins a living thing can make. So it is nucleic acids that make each creature unique. DNA Molecule Making and Breaking Large Molecules Scientists use the word synthesis to describe the building of large molecules from smaller building blocks. A similar process synthesizes all four types of molecules that we have discussed in this article. In order for any two building block molecules to be joined together, one hydrogen atom, H, is removed from one molecule and an OH from the other. The H and the OH come together to form a molecule of water, which is released as a product. The two building blocks are then joined at the spot where the H and the OH were removed. Since this process results in water being removed and a molecule being synthesized, it is called dehydration synthesis. This synthesis process is the same when large carbohydrates are put together from monosaccharides, when proteins are assembled from amino acids, when lipids combine from a glycerol molecule and fatty acids, or when nucleic acids from nucleotides. On the other hand, the process of breaking down these large molecules is exactly the opposite of dehydration synthesis. A molecule of water is split into an H and an OH. The bond between the two building blocks is broken and the H and the OH are then attached (one to each building block) at the sites of the broken bonds. This process is called hydrolysis, which means water breaking a chemical bond. Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions (like nearly every chemical reaction in living things) are controlled by special proteins called enzymes.

20 Reading Guide for BASIC BIOCHEMISTRY - THE CHEMISTRY OF LIVING THINGS 30 Elements In The Compound Draw Or Describe The Structure Of The Compound. Monosaccharide: Purpose What Is It Used For In The Body? Chemical Test Used To Indicate the Compound Is Present (this is not in your reading) Carbohydrates Polysaccharide: Lipids Saturated: Unsaturated: Proteins Nucleic Acids

21 THE LOW-DOWN ON ORGANIC SUBSTANCES Characteristics of organic molecules a. b. c. i. ii. d. Formation of polymers -Dehydration synthesis (condensation) 32 e. Break-down of polymers - Hydrolysis 2. Carbohydrates (made of C, H, O) a. Examples: b. Types i. Monosaccharide One sugar ii. Disaccharide Two sugars 2. Ex: Glucose + Galactose Lactose (milk sugar) Glucose + Fructose Sucrose (table sugar) + glucose + glucose maltose + water

22 iii. Polysaccharide Many sugars (the arrows indicate where a water molecule has been removed to form the polymer) c. Functions i. ii. 2. iii. 3. Proteins made of (C, H, O, N) a. b. c. + amino acid + amino acid protein + water d. Functions i. ii.

23 34 4. Lipids (fats) made of (C, H, O) a. b. Lipid Molecule Lipid Molecule c. Types include saturated and unsaturated fats 2. d. Functions 2.

24 Organic Molecules -- BIG IDEAS Answer these questions by using your notes 35 What are the 4 main types of organic substances found in living things? 2. Fill in the following table: Type of Organic Molecule Atoms Monomers C,H,O Carbohydrate Nucleotides 3. a) Describe what a polymer is: b) List 2 examples of polymers: 4. The process by which two monosaccharides are combined to form a disaccharide is called. 5. List 2 molecules that YOU use to store energy (be as specific as you can): 6. List 2 carbohydrates that are found in PLANTS, but are not generally found in animals (though animals may eat them):

25 7. What are 2 important functions of proteins in living things? The process by which two amino acids are combined to form a protein molecule (or polypeptide) is called: 9. Why are lipids ideal for their role as the main component of cell membranes? 10. The process by which a molecule of glycerol is combined with 3 fatty acids to form a lipid molecule is called 1 List 2 differences between saturated fats and unsaturated fats: 12. To form monomers from a polymer, a molecule of water is added to the polymer. This process is the reverse of dehydration synthesis and is called. 13. In the diagram below, show how the 2 amino acids will connect together to make a protein through dehydration synthesis: H + H H C H O N C C + + H H OH Glycine Alanine Protein + H 2 O

26 37 Carbon and Organic Compounds - Unit Review Label the molecules below as being either Organic (O) or Inorganic (I): CO2 C6H12O6 H2O Protein Starch Polyester NaCl CaCO3 DNA Lipids Amino Acids 2. During photosynthesis, what inorganic carbon compound do plants take in and then convert to an organic carbon compound? 3. What type of bonds do carbon atoms make? Why can carbon form long chains while other atoms cannot? 4. With regard to the carbon cycle, define each of the following: -Producers: -Consumers: -Decomposers: 5. What gases are thought to be the cause of global warming? What do these gases do that cause global warming? 6. What human activities release these gases to the atmosphere? 7. Fill in the chart below: Type of Organic Molecule Made of What Atoms? Made of What Monomers? Nucleic Acids Proteins Polysaccharides Lipids

27 38 8. For each of the following types of molecules, give the main function of each: -Monosaccharides, like glucose: -Starch: -Cellulose: -Lipids: -Proteins: -Nucleic Acids: 9. Draw the structures of two possible isomers of the molecule with the formula C3H6O. 10. In the drawing below, show how the two glucose molecules would be joined during dehydration synthesis: + 1 Once these two molecules are joined, what do you call the process that would break them apart again? 12. You put five drops of a colorless liquid into a test tube and add Biuret s reagent. If it turns purple, what can you conclude about the liquid? 13. You put five drops of a clear liquid into a test tube and add five drops of Iodine. The liquid looks reddish orange. What can you conclude?

28 You put five drops of a liquid on a paper towel, and 30 minutes later a spot remains. What can you conclude? 15. You put five drops of a clear liquid into a test tube and five drops of Benedict's reagent, you then place it in a boiling water bath for one minute. The solution looks light blue. What can you conclude? 16. If you perform hydrolysis on a nucleic acid, what monomers will you get?

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