INVITED REVIEW ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF TOXIGENIC FUSARIUM SPECIES IN CEREALS IN NORTHERN EUROPE AND ASIA

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1 Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 Edizioni ETS Pisa, INVITED REVIEW ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF TOXIGENIC FUSARIUM SPECIES IN CEREALS IN NORTHERN EUROPE AND ASIA T. Yli-Mattila Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland SUMMARY In northern Europe (Scandinavia, Finland and northwestern Russia) and Asia (Siberia and the Russian Far East) the most common Fusarium species responsible for Fusarium head blight (FHB) are the F. avenaceum/ arthrosporioides/tricinctum, F. graminearum/culmorum/ cerealis and F. poae/sporotrichioides/langsethiae species groups based on morphology. The most important mycotoxins produced by them are trichothecenes, zearalenone, moniformin and enniatins, including beauvericin. According to the molecular data the main lineages of F. avenaceum and F. arthrosporioides are types I (most F. avenaceum isolates) and II (some F. avenaceum isolates together with most F. arthrosporioides isolates). Lineage 7 of F. graminearum (= F. graminearum sensu stricto) dominates in northern Europe and Asia and has been replacing the closely related F. culmorum in northern Europe. F. asiaticum is the most common species of the F. graminearum/culmorum/cerealis species group in most parts of China and southern Japan, but it has not yet been found in Russia. The 3ADON chemotype of F. graminearum is prevalent in Scandinavia, Finland and north-western Russia, while the 15ADON chemotype of F. graminearum is more common in the more southern areas in Europe and China. Both the 3ADON and 15ADON chemotypes of F. graminearum are common in the Russian Far East together with the 3ADON chemotype of F. ussurianum and the 15ADON chemotype of F. vorosii. F. langsethiae can be divided into two lineages (subtypes) based on IGS sequences. The European F. langsethiae has only been found in Europe, while the Asian F. langsethiae in Siberia and the Russian Far East seems actually to be a lineage of F. sporotrichioides based on molecular data. Due to global warming and other human activities, we predict changes in the compositions of these species and mycotoxins produced by them. Key words: cereals, Fusarium avenaceum, F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. poae, F. sporotrichioides, F. langsethiae, mycotoxins. Corresponding author: T. Yl-Mattila Fax: tymat@utu.fi INTRODUCTION Fusarium is probably economically the most important phytopathogenic and toxigenic genus of filamentous fungi in cereals worldwide (O Donnell, 1996; McMullen et al., 1997; Bottalico and Perrone, 2002), including northern Europe and Asia (Ylimäki et al., 1979; Langseth et al., 1999; Eskola et al., 2001; Levitin, 2001, 2005; Kosiak et al., 2003; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004b, 2004c; Zhang et al., 2007; Qu et al., 2008, Suga et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009). Several Fusarium species are involved in Fusarium head blight (FHB), which reduces both crop yield and quality in cereals. In addition, Fusarium species produce mycotoxins dangerous for humans and animals (Bottalico and Perrone, 2002; Logrieco et al., 2002). The most important Fusarium mycotoxins are trichothecenes and zearalenone (Bottalico and Perrone, 2002). According to chemical features, trichothecenes can be divided in type A, including T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS), and type B, including deoxynivalenol (DON, also called vomitoxin) and nivalenol (NIV) and their mono- and di-acetylated derivatives (Bottalico, 1998). In the EU the maximum limit values for the first Fusarium toxins in grains and in human food have already been determined for DON and zearalenone (ZEN) (produced mainly by F. graminearum and F. culmorum) and soon they will be determined for HT-2 and T-2 (produced mainly by F. langsethiae and F. sporotrichioides) and other mycotoxins. The maximum limit values for these mycotoxins have also been determined in Russia. In spite of these dangerous characteristics of different Fusarium species, the genetic and environmental regulation of their mycotoxin production and phytopathogenicity are still poorly characterised. The mycotoxin production in several isolates of each species should be investigated both in laboratory conditions and in field experiments, because the mycotoxin composition in cereal grains is affected by environmental factors, such as water activity, temperature, substrate and competition (Jestoi et al., 2004a, 2008; Vogelgsang et al., 2008; Yli-Mattila et al., 2008). In northern Europe the most common Fusarium

2 8 Fusarium species in northern Europe and Asia Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 species in cereals are F. avenaceum, F. arthrosporioides (some researchers consider them conspecific), F. tricinctum, F. poae, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides and the new species F. langsethiae (Levitin, 2001, 2005; Kosiak et al., 2003; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004b, 2008; Stepien et al., 2008; Nicolaisen et al., 2009). Less common species include F. equiseti, F. torulosum and F. oxysporum (Kosiak et al., 2003). In western Siberia F. avenaceum, F. sporotrichioides and F. poae dominate, while in eastern Siberia F. acuminatum and F. avenaceum are the most common Fusarium species. According to Levitin (2001) Fusarium sporotrichioides isolates from Siberia produced T-2 toxin more than those from the European part of Russia. The greatest diversity of Fusarium species in cereals has been found in the Russian Far East, where F. graminearum and F. poae are the most common species (Levitin, 2001, 2004). The aim of present review paper is to clarify and update the ecology, evolution and genetic structure of poorly known toxigenic Fusarium species, especially the F. avenaceum/arthrosporioides/tricinctum, F. graminearum/culmorum/cerealis and F. langsethiae/poae/ sporotrichioides species complexes, in cereals in the northernmost agricultural areas in Europe (Scandinavia, Finland and north-western Russia) and Asia (Siberia and the Russian Far East). Most of the data of the present review paper are based on the results obtained in the Nordic network project New Emerging Mycotoxins and Secondary Metabolites in Toxigenic Fungi of Northern Europe ( F. AVENACEUM/ARTHROSPORIOIDES/ TRICINCTUM SPECIES GROUP Fusarium avenaceum, F. arthrosporioides and F. tricinctum are very closely related species, which together with other Fusarium species are associated with FHB and seedling (stem and root rot) diseases of all cereals grown in northern Europe (Bottalico and Perrone, 2002). They usually grow relatively slowly on PDA medium (Gerlach and Nirenberg, 1982). In most parts of Northern Europe and Asia F. avenaceum is a significant or even dominant Fusarium species in cereal grains (Levitin, 2001, 2004; Kosiak, 2003; Yli-Mattila et al., 2008b). A wide range of variation in pathogenicity and mycotoxin production between isolates has been reported (Uoti, 1976; Yli-Mattila et al., 1997; Jestoi et al., 2008; Vogelgsang et al., 2008). The sexual stage (teleomorph) of F. avenaceum, Gibberella avenaceum (Booth & Spooner 1984) is very rare. F. avenaceum, F. arthrosporioides and F. tricinctum (teleomorph Gibberella tricincta, El-Gholl et al., 1978) are considered trichothecene nonproducers (Langseth et al., 1999; Edwards et al., 2001; Thrane et al., 2001; Jestoi et al., 2004a; Jestoi, 2008), but they are able to produce other mycotoxins, such as moniliformin (Golinski et al., 1996; Jestoi et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2008; Uhlig, 2005; Vogelgsang et al., 2008), enniatins (Langseth et al., 1999; Jestoi et al., 2004b; Uhlig 2005, 2009) and and 2-amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol (2-AOD-3ol, Uhlig et al., 2007). According to Logrieco et al. (2002), Finnish F. avenaceum isolates are effective in producing beauvericin in rye (in the original paper the name of the crop was wheat by accident), but according to Jestoi et al. (2004a, 2008) Finnish F. avenaceum, F. arthrosproioides and F. tricinctum strains do not produce high beauvericin levels, which is in accordance with the results obtained in Norway (Uhlig, 2005) and Switzerland (Vogelgsang et al., 2008). A correlation has been found between cytotoxicity and enniatins and 2AOD-3-ol in F. avenaceum isolates but not between cytotoxicity and moniliformin (Uhlig et al., 2006). Differences in ITS, IGS, mtssu and b-tubulin sequences, UP-PCR hybridization and morphology have been analyzed between mainly northern European and international F. avenaceum, F. anguioides, F. arthrosporioides, F. tricinctum, F. graminum and F. acuminatum strains (Yli-Mattila et al., 2002). According to the latest DNA sequence investigations F. arthrosporioides is not a monophyletic species. Isolates, which morphologically belong to F. arthrosporioides can be divided based on molecular data at least into three clusters, of which only one is separate from the two main groups of F. avenaceum. Most F. arthrosporioides isolates are related to main group II of F. avenaceum, while only a few isolates of F. arthrosporioides are related to the main group I of F. avenaceum containing most F. avenaceum isolates. The two main groups of F. avenaceum form together with the rest of F. arthrosporioides isolates a monophyletic clade, which is separated from F. tricinctum and F. acuminatum isolates (Yli-Mattila et al., 2002, 2004b; Uhlig et al., 2009). It is suggested that the majority of northern European F. avenaceum group 1 isolates belong to two vegetative compatibility (VC) groups (Gagkaeva et al., 2002). The three clusters of F. avenaceum/f.arthrosporioides species complex and the cluster of F. tricinctum isolates are also supported by image analyses of full HPLC chromatographic matrices (Yli- Mattila et al., 2006b), although their mycotoxin profiles are almost identical (Uhlig et al., 2007). By using a combination of the three primer pairs specific for the main groups of F. avenaceum/f.arthrosporioides/f. tricinctum species complex it is also possible to distinguish most of the strains of the three species, including degenerated strains (Turner et al., 1998; Yli- Mattila et al., 2002, 2004b). The results obtained with AFLP (Gagkaeva et al., 2007) and elongation factor 1 alpha sequences (Kristensen et al., 2005; Gagkaeva et al., 2007) are generally in agreement with these results. It has also been possible to design specific primers for detection of F. tricinctum based on IGS sequences (Ku-

3 Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 T. Yli-Mattila 9 lik, 2008). More F. tricinctum isolates together with isolates of other closely related species from different parts of the world should be investigated in order to confirm the specificity of the F. tricinctum-specific primers. F. GRAMINEARUM/CULMORUM/CEREALIS SPECIES GROUP AND CHEMOTYPES F. graminearum (teleomorph Gibberella zeae) is the most important Fusarium species in central Europe and in large areas in North America and Asia (McMullen et al., 1997; Gagkaeva and Yli-Mattila, 2004; Goswami and Kistler, 2004; Zhang et al., 2007; Qu et al., 2008; Suga et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009; Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a, 2009b). F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. cerealis isolates are usually growing relatively quickly on PDA medium. During the last years F. graminearum has been spreading to the north in Europe in the Netherlands, England (Waalwijk et al., 2003; Nicholson et al., 2003), Norway (Elen et al., 2007, personal communication), Sweden (Fredlund et al., 2008), Finland (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008b, 2009a) and north-western Russia (Yli- Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009) and it has been replacing the closely related F. culmorum, which is less effective in producing DON (Langseth et al., 1999; Jestoi et al., 2004a, 2008). F. cerealis is more southern, but it has been found in Russian Far East (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008; Gagkaeva, 2009; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009). F. graminearum species complex has been divided into 13 species, of which one, still called F. graminearum (=lineage 7) is dominant in Europe and North America (O Donnell et al., 2000, 2004; Gagkaeva and Yli-Mattila, 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2009b). Species-specific primers based on IGS (intergenic spacer region in ribosomal DNA) and transcription factor (TEF-1a) sequences can be used for separating F. culmorum isolates from F. cerealis, F. graminearum lineage 7 (= F. graminearum sensu stricto) and from other species of the F. graminearum species complex (O Donnell et al., 2000, 2004; Jurado et al., 2005; Kristensen et al., 2005). A luminex assay has also been used for separating species and chemotypes of F. graminearum/culmorum species complex from each other (Ward et al., 2008; Yli-Mattila et al., 2009b). According to O Donnell et al. (2004) F. culmorum, F. graminearum species complex and four species in the F. graminearum are nonmonophyletic within the IGS tree and all F. culmorum isolates can not be separated on the basis of IGS sequences from F. graminearum, while Jurado et al. (2005) could separate them by primers based on IGS sequences. Thus further studies with more isolates are required to confirm how well these species can be separated based on IGS sequences. In Fusarium, most genes coding for enzymes of trichothecene synthesis are located in TRI cluster (Alexander et al., 2009). All 13 species of F. graminearum species complex and closely related F. culmorum and F. cerealis belong to type B trichothecene producers (Jennings et al., 2004; Ward et al., 2008). The species may be divided into two chemotypes, DON and NIV, based on the production of trichothecenes. NIV production is regulated by proteins coded by TRI7 and TRI13 genes. The DON-chemotype is further divided into isolates producing either 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3ADON) or 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15ADON). 3ADON chemotype may result from altered expression or activity of the protein coded by TRI8 (Kimura et al., 2003). The chemotypes have also been called chemotype IA (producing 3ADON), IB (producing 15ADON) and II (producing NIV) (Miller et al., 1991). According to the toxicological studies the NIV chemotype is about ten times more toxic than DON (Ueno, 1983; Ryu et al. 1987; Perkowski et al. 1997). The two chemotypes appear to differ in geographic distribution (Bottalico and Perrone; 2002; Kim et al., 2003; Jennings et al., 2004). In northern Europe, the 3ADON chemotype of F. graminearum and F. culmorum is the dominant one, at least in Finland (Jestoi et al., 2004a, 2008) and Norway (Langseth et al., 1999), while the 15DON chemotype of F. graminearum is predominating in UK (Jennings et al., 2004), Austria (Adler et al., 2002) and Germany (Yli- Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009) based on chemical analyses of isolates and grain samples from fields (Langseth et al., 2001; Rizzo et al., 2001; Lew et al., 2001; Beyer et al., 2007). Also the mycotoxin results in Finland are in accordance with these results, since no 15ADON chemotype was found in grain samples (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a). In Russia the majority of F. graminearum isolates (91.2%) produced 15ADON, but some isolates (8.8%) of the NIV chemotype were also found (Kononenko et al., 1991). These isolates were from southern Russia, where 15ADON chemotype is dominant. The NIV chemotype might be due to F. cerealis, which is difficult to separate from F. graminearum, as was the case in the work of Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva (2009). In north-western Russia F. graminearum was not found until 2003 and only the 3ADON chemotype has been found, which indicates that they are related to the older Finnish population. The 3ADON chemotype was first found near St. Petersburg in the Volosovo State Experimental Research Station, where a lot of cereal cultivars from different regions of Russia and Finland were grown and compared in field conditions. 3ADON isolates of F. graminearum and F. culmorum inhibit more strongly the growth of wheat seedlings and cause more necrotic lesions than 15ADON isolates of F. graminearum and NIV isolates of F. cerealis (Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009). This is in accordance with higher DON production of 3ADON isolates (Ward et al., 2008; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2009) as compared to 15ADON isolates. Since 3ADON phytotoxicity and pathogenic potential are higher in 3ADON isolates as

4 10 Fusarium species in northern Europe and Asia Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 compared to 15ADON isolates as shown by Ward et al. (2008), the increase of the 3ADON chemotype of F. graminearum on new cereal production areas may be dangerous for the health of humans and livestock. Trichothecene toxins are connected with aggressiveness of pathogens, influence on disease severity and colonization of plant tissues (Proctor et al., 2002). In North America dramatic changes have been found in the toxin chemotypes of F. graminearum. The 3ADON chemotype has been found to grow more quickly and to produce more trichothecenes and conidia than the 15ADON chemotype (Ward et al., 2008), which explains, why the 3ADON chemotype is spreading in North America and why a major shift from 15ADON to the more competitive 3ADON-producing strains has taken place. Instead, in Austria the 15ADON chemotype has become more common (Adler et al., 2002). Additional lineages of the F. graminearum species complex have also recently been found in North America (O - Donnell et al., 2004, 2006; Starkey et al., 2007), Africa (O Donnell et al., 2008, and the Far East of Russia (Yli- Mattila et al., 2009b). F. POAE/SPOROTRICHIOIDES/LANGSETHIAE SPECIES GROUP AND CHEMOTYPES F. poae and F. sporotrichioides are type A trichothecene producers, but only a few F. poae isolates can produce small amounts of T-2 and HT-2, while NIV is the main mycotoxin produced by F. poae (Jestoi et al., 2004, 2008; Thrane et al., 2004; Vogelgsang et al., 2008). In F. poae the TRI16 gene, which is needed for T- 2 production, is truncated and therefore most likely nonfunctional, which probably explains, why it can not produce T-2 toxin (Proctor et al., 2009). These two species usually grow very quickly on PDA medium (Gerlach and Nirenberg, 1982). Information regarding the effects of T-2 mycotoxin on people has been collected from many accidents caused by moldy wheat or corn. One of them took place in the Ural region in the former Soviet Union during the World War II, when crop could not be harvested before the winter. The moldy wheat, which was harvested after the winter, caused the clinical syndrome alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), with a mortality rate of % (Sarkisov, 1954; Joffe, 1986). Sarkisov (1954) reproduced the disease in cats by feeding millet infected with F. sporotrichioides that had been isolated from infected grain. Alcohol and ether extracts of F. sporotrichioides also caused necrotic lesions on rabbit skin. Later in 1960 s the trichothecene T-2 toxin was isolated from F. sporotrichioides (originally it was identified as F. tricinctum) strain T-2 and it was found to cause necrotic lesions on animal skin (Marasas, 1967; Joffe, 1986; Mirocha et al., 2003; Desjardins, 2006). So, T-2 toxin was probably connected to ATA outbreaks in Soviet Union. In Finland, the highest HT-2 and T-2 levels have been found in oats (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008, 2009a) The mycotoxins produced by F. poae include type-a and type-b trichothecenes, such as diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), monoacetoxycirpenol (MAS), scirpentriol (SCR), nivalenol (NIV) and fusarenon-x (FX) (Pettersson, 1991; Liu et al., 1998; Torp and Langseth, 1999; Thrane et al., 2004; Jestoi et al., 2004a; Vogelgsang et al., 2008; Stenglein, 2009). Reports concerning the ability of F. poae isolates to produce other type-a trichothecenes, such as HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin and neosolaniol, are contradictory (Torp and Langseth, 1999; Bottalico and Perrone, 2002; Thrane et al., 2004). These diverse findings, however, may be due to the misidentification of F. langsethiae isolates, which are morphologically similar to F. poae (Torp and Langseth, 1999; Torp and Nirenberg, 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004a). In Finland, the highest NIV levels have been found in barley (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008b, 2009a). In Japan, several Fusarium species including F. kyushuense, which is closely related to F. poae, are important NIV producers (Aoki and O Donnell, 1998; Suga et al., 2008). F. kyushuense is also lacking the TRI16 gene (Proctor et al., 2009), which is necessary for T-2 production. F. langsethiae is a European species, which was first found in Norway (Torp and Langseth, 1999) and later characterised and named as a new species (Torp and Nirenberg, 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004a; Knutsen et al., 2004). Previously, F. langsethiae strains were usually identified as F. poae. Both species are relatively weak pathogens as compared to F. graminearum and F. culmorum, which produce only macroconidia. F. langsethiae only produces microconidia and F. poae also usually produces only microconidia (Figure 1C), but it is not known, if microconidia are connected to the weak pathogenicity of these two species in cereals. In Finland F. langsethiae was found first in 2001 (Yli-Mattila et al., 2004b) and in Russia in 2003 (Gagkaeva et al., 2007). Morphologically F. langsethiae (Figure 1B) is more similar to F. poae (Figure 1C), but its metabolite profile is closer to that of F. sporotrihichioides and it is capable of producing high levels of HT-2 and T-2 toxins unlike F. poae (Torp and Langseth, 1999; Torp and Nirenberg, 2004; Thrane et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004a; Wilson et al., 2004). A morphologically intermediate isolate between F. langsethiae and F. sporotrichioides was found in Norway. According to molecular and toxin data it was, however, more closely related to F. sporotrichioides than to other European F. langsethiae isolates (Torp and Nirenberg, 2004; Thrane et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004). More intermediate F. langsethiae isolates have been found in Siberia and Russian Far East (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009c, manuscript in preparation). The IGS region together with TEF 1a gene has been found to be very useful in evolutionary studies of Sporotrichiella section (Knutsen et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila

5 Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 T. Yli-Mattila 11 Fig. 1. Light microscope view of Fusarium conidia. A. F. sporotrichioides, B. F. langsethiae, C. F. poae (photos by Tatiana Gagkaeva). et al., 2004). European F. langsethiae strains can be divided into two subgroups based on IGS regions and the subgroups can be separated by subgroup-specific primers (Konstantinova and Yli-Mattila, 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004a). The two subgroups are supported by the tree based on TEF 1a gene sequences (Yli-Mattila et al. 2009c). F. langsethiae is one of the pioneer Fusarium fungi (together with F. poae) in cereals during flowering (Wilson et al. 2004; Parikka et al.; 2005, Yli-Mattila et al., 2006a; Jestoi et al., 2008), especially in oats (Torp and Nirenberg 2004; Thrane et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2004a, 2006a; Schmidt et al., 2004; Jestoi et al., 2008; Yli-Mattila et al., 2008b; Stenglein et al., 2009). F. langsethiae is easily overgrown and replaced by other Fusarium species later during the growing season based on qpcr results (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008b, 2009a). F. poae and F. langsethiae may be competitors in cereal grains, because it has been found that tillage with ploughing increases the amount of F. poae, while the amount of F. langsethiae decreases as compared to direct drilling (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a). Recent studies of genetic variation of Fusarium species in Finland and Russia In Nordic countries and Russia most of the Fusarium research in cereals have been connected to the Nordic network project New Emerging Mycotoxins and Secondary Metabolites in Toxigenic Fungi of Northern Europe ( Mycotox/). Using the combination of different molecular and morphological character patterns it was shown that the Asian F. graminearum population was more heterogeneous as compared with the European one and that there are genetically different F. graminearum groups in Europe and Asia (Gagkaeva and Yli-Mattila, 2004). Analysis of 55 F. graminearum isolates showed high levels of polymorphism in genes encoding enzymes in the trichothecene biosynthesis pathway. All studied isolates were classified as DON chemotype, except for one isolate from Germany that was classified as NIV chemotype. Both 3ADON and 15ADON chemotypes were found in Russia, but in Finland and north-western Russia only the 3ADON chemotype was found based on molecular markers, while in southern Russia the 15ADON chemotype was dominant (Gagkaeva et al., 2006; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2010). Only three of the 16 F. graminearum strains studied (2 from North Ossetia and one from Germany) had point mutations in beta-tubulin sequences. The IGS region was more variable (Gagkaeva and Yli-Mattila, 2004). When the IGS sequences were compared with unpublished IGS sequences obtained from Dr. Kerry O Donnell, it was concluded that most of the strains belonged to F. graminearum sensu stricto. More F. graminearum isolates from Russia, Finland and northern China together with closely related F. culmorum and F. cerealis isolates were investigated using a multilocus genotyping assay (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009b; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2010), in which significant differences in the geographic distribution of the 3ADON and 15ADON chemotypes of F. graminearum in Europe were found (Figure 2). Most of the 15ADON isolates produced the DON-specific amplification fragment both with chemotype-specific GzTri7f1/r1 and Tri13f/r primers. So, it is possible to use these primers

6 12 Fusarium species in northern Europe and Asia Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 for identification of the 3ADON and 15ADON chemotypes (Kimura et al., 2003; Chandler et al., 2003; Jennings et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2010) and the results are similar to those obtained by the multilocus genotype assay. The molecular chemotype and ML- GT results (Yli-Mattila and Gagkaeva, 2010; Yli-Mattila et al. 2009b) are consistent with previous mycotoxin analyses of pure cultures of Finnish FHB isolates on autoclaved rice (Jestoi et al., 2004, 2008) and analyses of field samples (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008a, 2008b), according to which Finnish and north-western Russian F. graminearum and F. culmorum isolates belong to 3ADON chemotype. In the Russian Far East the 3ADON chemotype frequency increased between the years , and could reflect a shift in trichothecene chemotype composition similar to that observed within North America (Ward et al., 2008). Phylogenetic analyses of 10 putatively genetically novel isolates from the Far East of Russia resolved these isolates as a phylogenetically distinct, reciprocally monophyletic sister lineage of F. asiaticum, which together with F. vorosii, form a newly discovered Asian clade within the F. graminearum species complex. The new species was described as F. ussurianum and it is not possible to separate it from F. graminearum sensu stricto based on morphology (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009b), which is typical for species in this species complex. All F. ussurianum isolates belong to 3ADON chemotype, while all F. vorosii isolates belong to 15ADON chemotype. According to preliminary results, the Asian F. langsethiae isolates from Siberia and Far East differ from those collected in Europe (Gagkaeva et al., 2007). They are morphologically like European F. langsethiae isolates, but according to preliminary phylogenetic studies based on three DNA sequences, the Asian F. langsethiae isolates are closer to F. sporotrichioides than to European F. langsethiae and may represent a new species. The necrosis and chlorosis reactions caused by F. poae and European and Asian F. langsethiae isolates in leaf pathogenicity experiments are similar to each other and differ from those obtained with F. sporotrichioides isolates (T. Yli- Mattila, O. Gavrilova and T. Gagkaeva, unpublished results). The Asian F. langsethiae isolates are also monophyletic with the previously found Norwegian F. langsethiae isolate, which is morphologically intermediate between F. sporotrichioides and other European F. langsethiae isolates, while their toxin profiles are identical with those of F. sporotrichioides (Thrane et al., 2004). There is less variation among Asian isolates at DNA level than observed in European F. langsethiae isolates. Further DNA sequencing of Asian F. langsethiae isolates is now going on. It is not known if European or Asian F. langsethiae were involved in ATA outbreaks in the Ural region, since no F. langsethiae isolates have been collected in this area (Fig. 2). The correlation between Fusarium DNA, mycotoxin levels and pathogenicity A highly significant correlation has been found between F. graminearum DNA and DON in Finnish oat, barley and spring wheat (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008a, 2009a). In barley the correlation was improved when F. culmorum DNA was added to F. graminearum DNA in the correlation analysis. The highly significant correlation between F. graminearum/f. culmorum DNA and DON is in agreement with previous results of Waalwijk et al. (2004) and Nicholson et al. (2003) in Europe and Sarlin et al. (2006) in North America. High R 2 (coefficient of determination) values were also obtained between F. langsethiae/f. sporotrichioides DNA and HT-2/T-2 toxins and F. avenaceum DNA and enniatins/moniliformin, while a lower correlation was found between F. poae DNA and nivalenol levels in barley and oats (Yli-Mattila et al., 2008a, 2009a). Fluorogenic PCR detection can also be used for the detection and quantification of Fusarium fungi in cereals before harvesting (Reischler et al., 2004; Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a) in order to predict the risk of mycotoxins in mature grain. In field experiments in Finland it has been found that Fusarium DNA levels start to increase after flowering in spring wheat and barley (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a). Recent studies in northern Europe and Asia According to Stepien et al. (2008) F. culmorum prevailed in northern Europe (England, the Netherlands, Norway, Finland, northern Germany and northern Poland) until the end of the year 2000, while the frequency of F. graminearum remained low. But since then the level of F. graminearum has been increasing in all these countries. 15ADON is the dominant chemotype of F. graminearum in Poland, while in F. culmorum the 3ADON chemotype is dominant. F. poae is also an important pathogen in wheat in Poland (Kulik and Jestoi, 2009) as well as in oats in north-western Russia (Gagkaeva et al., 2007) and this species likely contributes to NIV levels in grains in these countries. In Ukraine, F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. poae/sporotrichioides are the dominant species (Kryuchikova et al., 2002). F. graminearum dominates in western Ukraine, while F. culmorum is most common in the drier regions of southern Ukraine. In Norway F. avenaceum is the dominant Fusarium species in cereal grains (Uhlig et al., 2005, 2007). The new species, F. langsethiae, was first found in Norway in the 1990 s (Torp and Langseth, 1999; Torp and Nirenberg, 2004) and it is the main T-2/HT-2 producer, especially in oats. The regulation of zearalenone synthesis of F. graminearum (Lysoe et al., 2006), the toxins of F. equiseti (Morrison et al., 2002) and infection process of Fusarium langsethiae (Divon et al., 2009) have also been investigated in Norway. Different DNA technologies,

7 Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 T. Yli-Mattila 13 Fig. 2. Distribution of the 3ADON (A) and 15ADON (B) chemotypes of F. graminearum in northern Europe, mixed F. graminearum population with both chemotypes in northern Asia (C) and Asian F. langsethiae in Siberia and Russian Far East. The area of European F. langsethiae and ATA syndrome in the southern Ural region has also been encircled. such as microarray and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assays, have been recently developed for identification of Fusarium species in Norway (Kristensen, 2005; Kristensen et al., 2006, 2007). According to the latest results, organic agriculture might decrease mycotoxin levels in grains in Norway (Bernhoft, 2009) In Denmark and central Europe maize is becoming more common, which means that F. verticillioides and fumonisins have been found already even in Denmark. Maize is also increasing F. gramineaurum and DON levels in other cereals grown after it. It seems that F. sporotrichioides is the main T-2 producer in maize in Denmark (Nicolaisen et al., 2009). In Sweden, F. graminearum is also the main DON producer in cereal grains and there is a good correlation between F. graminearum DNA and DON/ZEN levels in wheat (Fredlund et al., 2008). A lower correlation has been also found between F. langsethiae DNA and HT- 2/T-2 toxins in oats (Fredlund, 2009). There is an inverse relationship between F. poae/f. graminearum and F. langsethiae in oats, which is in agreement with the results obtained in Finland (Yli-Mattila et al., 2009a). In Sweden (Pettersson, 1991) and North America (Salas et al., 1999) F. poae seems to be the most important NIV producer, which is in agreement with the results in Finland and those obtained in Switzerland (Vogelgsang et al., 2008), while in Central Europe certain F. culmorum and F. graminearum strains are also known to be able to produce NIV (Bottalico and Perrone, 2002). F. graminearum and F. langsethiae have not yet been found in Estonia (Loiveke, 2008), but according to preliminary qpcr data both species are present there (T. Yli-Mattila and H. Loiveke, unpublished results). Further studies with different molecular and morphological methods are needed to confirm these results in Baltic countries. In northern China, F. graminearum produces mostly 15ADON (Ji et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007), while in northern Japan the 3ADON chemotype of F. graminearum predominates (Suga et al., 2008). Thus, it seems that like in Europe and North America the 3ADON chemotype of F. graminearum is more common in the most northern agricultural areas of Asia, while the 15ADON chemotype is dominant in southern areas. However, F. asiaticum is the most common species of F. graminearum species complex in most agricultural areas of China (Qu et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008) and in southern Japan. In South Korea FHB epidemics have also occurred in rice and they seem mainly be due to F. asiaticum (Lee et al., 2009).

8 14 Fusarium species in northern Europe and Asia Journal of Plant Pathology (2010), 92 (1), 7-18 FUTURE PROSPECTS In the future, it will probably be possible to find more lineages of F. sporotrichiodes and F. tricinctum based on molecular characters. The molecular lineages of F. avenaceum/f. arthrosporioides species complex can also be separated based on metabolite data (Yli-Mattila et al., 2006b). It should also be decided, which of these lineages are actually new species and which of them are just developing species, hybrids or VC groups, which in F. oxysporum can be host-specific. VC groups of F. avenaceum have been studied, but unfortunately this work did not include isolates of main type II and F. arthrosporioides (Gagkaeva et al., 2002). Finnish F. avenaceum isolates of main group I could be divided into four VC groups. The current molecular methods will be improved, validated and automated, making it possible to use them in the routine identification, detection and quantification of Fusarium species. The most promising techniques for the large-scale identification of different fungal species and chemotypes are microarray-based methods (Kristensen, 2006) and other hybridisation methods (e.g. Luminex; Ward et al., 2008; Yli-Mattila et al., 2009b) detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by grants from the Academy of Finland (no and ) and the Nordic network project New Emerging Mycotoxins and Secondary Metabolites in Toxigenic Fungi of Northern Europe (project ), which is funded by the Nordic Research Board. The author is grateful for Dr. T. Gagkaeva from the All-Russian Plant Protection Institute in St. Petersburg in Russia for photos and comments on the manuscript. 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