Study Aid for D1: Nutrition
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1 Study Aid for D1: Nutrition Essential nutrient Food only source. Ex. Some Amino acids, minerals, calcium, vitamins, water, some fatty acids Non-essential nutrient Can be made in body. Ex. Glucose, starch. Conditionally essential Produced at some point in life but not others: Vitamin K Ascorbic Acid Also vitamin C. mutation in GLO gene mutates enzyme L-gulano-y-lactone oxidase so can t make this vitamin. Result is scurvy when vitamin C is deficient. Conditionally essential Amino Threonine and arginine acids Essential fatty acids Omega-3 and omega 6 Essential amino acids Histidine, leucine, lysine, valine, phenylalanine Lack of essential amino acids Body can t make proteins because they are the building block of proteins. in diet causes Protein deficiency malnutrition Minerals Needed in small amounts, usually ionic, lacking in diet causes deficiency diseases Iodine deficiency disorder Lack of iodine needed for thyroid to make hormone thyroxin that stimulates metabolic rate vitamins Needed in small amounts, act as cofactors for enzymes, anti-oxidants, and hormones. Can be fat or water soluble Water soluble vitamins Constantly loss in urine: vitamin B and C Fat soluble vitamins Constantly stored: Vitamins A, D, E, K Malnutrition Poor diet, low protein and caloric content in diet or unbalanced. To much fats and carbs Hypothalamus Appetite control center. Signals us when we are full. Receives following 3 hormones from body PYY Hormone made by small s when food is present. Insulin Secreted by pancreas when blood glucose concentration is high Leptin Secreted by adipose tissue when amounts of stored fat increases Excess fat and refine carbs in Can lead to diabetes and hypertension diet Diabetes I Insulin-secreting cells in pancreas destructed Diabetes II Decrease responsiveness of insulin secreting cells burn-out Symptoms of diabetes Elevated blood glucose, glucose in urine, dehydration, thirst, need to urinate a lot starvation Leads to breakdown own muscle to get to energy sources. A.A. taken out and sent to liver to be made into glucose. Muscle mass loss PKU Genetic, mutation in gene that codes for enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine. Recessive disease so need to inherit both alleles, can cause mental retardation, and reduce growth and retardation. Can be controlled by diet. Vitamin D Needed for calcium absorption in s. Can be made in skin if exposed to sunlight. Lack of results in rickets or osteomalacia Anorexia nervosa Illness with voluntary starvation and loss of body mass. Body weight drops and muscles deteriorates because body breaks them down for energy. Cardiac muscle also reduced. Cholesterol Component of plasma membranes, high levels may increase coronary heart disease, can be made in liver so diet not only source. Some levels controlled by genetics. LDL cholesterol Low density lipoprotein and is implicated with CHD Saturated fats More correlation with increased risk of CHD Calorimetry Used to determine energy content of food substance Formula Mass of water X specific heat X change in temperature
2 Study Aid for 6.1 Digestion and Absorption and D2 Digestion Study diagram: Organ Mouth Stomach Small Large Digestive Activities Table of digestive tract Mechanical digestion: chewing Chemical digestion: saliva contains amylase and lipase Mechanical digestion: churning Chemical digestion: protease (pepsin) Chemical digestion: amylase, protease, lipase (assisted by bile from liver/gall bladder), nuclease (all enzymes predominantly from the pancreas) Nutrient and water absorption Water absorption Table of enzymes Enzyme Where found Breaks down ph Amylase Mouth and small Starch to maltose Neutral to basic Maltose Small s Maltose to glucose Basic Protease Lipase Stomach and small Mouth and small Nuclease Small Proteins to amino acids Lipids to fatty acids and glycerol Nucleic acids to nucleotides Acidic Basic Basic
3 Absorption: small molecules and nutrients pass into blood vessels in small s. Assimilation: products of digestion transported to tissues and used. Starch broken down by amylase into amylopectin and disaccharide maltose. Maltase is then needed to break it down further to glucose. Activity of digestive system controlled by nervous system and hormonal mechanisms. Not always active. Gastric juices can be started by vagus nerve in brain when food is smelt. Distension in stomach also signals small s to get ready Mouth Amylase secreted by salivary glands to start breaking starch down to maltose Stomach low ph, gastric juice, protection by mucus against self-destruction o Parietal cells secrete HCl that causes the ph to be very acidic and disrupts extracellular matrix of cells (kills bacteria) o Chief cells secrete pepsin which is inactive form of pepsinogen that hydrolyzes proteins. Acidic environment convert pepsin into active form pepsinogen. o Gastric juice = HCl + pepsin + hormones = secreted by the stomach (parietal and chief cells) o Pepsin = protease that works best in acidic environment. o Goblet cells secrete mucus lining that protect the stomach from the acid and self-digestion. production of digestive enzymes, site of digestion o Chemical digestion: Stomach produces pepsin, which digests proteins (secreted in an inactive form, gets activated in acidic environment) o Mechanical digestion: Stomach churns food. Pancreas production of enzymes that do hydrolysis reactions to break down food o Pancreas is the major source for all the digestive enzymes. Amylase - digests starch. Various proteases. (Endopeptidases: ex. Trypsin) breaks down proteins Lipase - digests lipids. Ribonuclease - digests nucleic acids. o Pancreas makes HCO3 - so it is basic to neutralize the HCl from the stomach Makes pancreatic juice is secreted into small o Digestive enzymes of pancreas = exocrine = flows into small via duct. Structure (gross): tadpole-shaped gland with duct leading to duodenum. Enzymes made by ribosomes in pancreatic gland cells and excreted by exocytosis into duct. Small Intestines Absorption of food molecules and water o Small is the major place for digestion and absorption. o Folds, villi, and microvilli increases the surface area for absorption. o Absorbs digested food into circulation (into capillaries). o Active transport occurs to absorb against the concentration gradient. While cell is actively transporting sodium out of cell on basal side (Secondary active transport by Na + -K + pump), sodium moves into cell on apical side bringing a glucose with it. o Passive/facilitated diffusion occurs to absorb down the concentration gradient. Glucose builds up in cell the special exits on basal side through special glucose channels facilitated diffusion (then the glucose will go from the extracellular fluid to blood).
4 Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into epithelial cells from lumen. They combine together to form lipoproteins Large function and structure of villi: increase surface area for more absorption o Villi = finger-like protrusions inside small. o Microvilli = same as villi but on the surface of a single absorptive cell. o Outer layer of microvilli is made of epithelia cells that allow nutrients to pass through. Capillaries located below these cells. o Villi absorb monomers: monosaccharides, amino acids, nitrogenous bases, glycerol, fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral ions. production of enzymes, site of digestion o The small is the major place for digestion and absorption. o Pancreas is the major source for enzymes. However, the small does make some of its own enzymes, including protease and amylase. neutralization of stomach acid o The pancreas makes bicarbonate ion to neutralize the HCl from the stomach. o This neutralization facilitates enzymes in the small, which would be denatured by stomach ph. structure (anatomic subdivisions) 1. Duodenum. 2. Jejunum. 3. Ileum. Peristalsis mixes food with enzymes and moves it along o Circular and longitudinal muscles make up tube. Both are types of smooth muscles. o Continuous waves of contraction and relaxation controlled by autonomic nervous system o Moves food slowly for maximum digestion and absorption Anatomic subdivisions (old topic) 1. Cecum: blind pocket containing appendix. 2. Ascending colon 3. Transverse colon 4. Descending colon 5. Sigmoid colon 6. Rectum: stores feces. absorption of water: The large absorbs any remaining water that is not absorbed by small. bacterial flora o Ferment undigested nutrients, make gas. o Produce vitamin K (important for clotting). structure (gross): lobes/pockets along its length due to muscle tone. Unlike small, the large has no folds or villi. Rectum (storage and elimination of waste, feces) Rectum stores feces. The anal sphincter ties the end of the rectum. During defecation, sphincter opens, feces are released through the anus
5 Anus Egested material consists of undigested parts of food and unabsorbed material o Fiber: parts of plants that are not digested because they contain cellulose. We don t have enzymes to breakdown cellulose into small parts so it cannot be absorbed. It is egested o If to much water is absorbed could result in constipation. To little food absorbed results in runny stool Rate of transit of materials is correlated with fiber o Fiber helps move food through tube and reduces chances of some illnesses such as bowel cancer and hemorrhoids. On picture below label: the lumen on all epithelium cell (big one) apical surface on epithelium basal surface on epithelium blood vessel on epithelium circular and longitudinal muscle tight junction on epithelial
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