Chapter 18. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 1
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1 Chapter 18 Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 1
2 Introduction to Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Bioenergetics Metabolism and Bioenergetics Metabolism ALL biochemical reactions involving the use, production & storage of energy Anabolism Synthetic (reductive) metabolic reactions that require energy Catabolism Degradation (oxidative) metabolic reactions that produce energy verview of Catabolism Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 2
3 Proteins: Structure and Function Proteins perform many important functions: Type Function Examples Structure Shape / Support Collagen provides structure to tendons & cartilage Enzymes Catalysis Enzymes aid in biochemical reactions (Amylase begins digestion of carbohydrates by hydrolysis.) ormones Regulate body functions Insulin facilitates use of glucose for energy generation Storage Make essential substances Myoglobin stores oxygen in muscles Contraction Do mechanical work Actin & myosin govern muscle movement Protection (Immunity) Defend body against foreign matter Immunoglobulin aids destruction of invading bacteria Transport Carry substances through body emoglobin - transports 2 in blood Membrane proteins - perform active transport Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids bonded together and folded into a particular shape. Proteins can be described as fibrous, globular, or membrane. The specific shape of each protein is individualized to help it perform a specific function. Fibrous Proteins primarily found in structural proteins Globular Proteins enzymes, immunity, transport Membrane Proteins help transport substances in & out of cell through the cell membrane Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 3
4 Carbohydrates: Structure and Function Carbohydrates are a class of biomolecules w/ a variety of functions. 1. energy source & storage as starch or glycogen 2. create structural support for plants and animals 3. Glycoproteins receptors on cell membranes. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 4
5 Lipids: Structure and Function Lipids are naturally occurring molecules from plants or animals that are NT soluble in water. Lipids are classified by a combination of their structure and function. Waxes: Triglycerides: Phospholipids & glycolipids: Steroids: water barrier long term energy storage cell membranes cholesterol and its derivatives (bile acids, vitamin D, and sex hormones) Eicosanoids: compounds involved in our body s inflammatory response to trauma and infection Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 5
6 Carbohydrates Part 1: Introduction & Monosaccharides Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehydes, polyhydroxyketones, or compounds that yield them after hydrolysis. Circle the aldehyde or ketone in each structure below. C C C C C C 2 C 2 C C C C C 2 Video Error Correction This ketohexose is D-sorbose, NT D-fructose as stated in the video. classification classification What is the molecular formula for each structure above? ypothesize the origin of the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrate Vocabulary & Classification Carbohydrates are classified by the number of simple sugars bonded together. Monosaccharides Disaccharides ligosaccharides Polysaccharides Aldose Ketose Pentose exose The terms aldose, ketose, pentose and hexose can be mixed to describe sugars (carbohydrates). Use these terms to characterize the two monosaccharides at the top of this page. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 6
7 Monosaccharides - Cyclic Structure Simple 5- and 6-carbon sugars can react with themselves to make cyclic structures. There are several ways to show cyclic monosaccharides. Fischer Projection aworth Projection Chair Conformation C C 2 D glucose -D-glucopyranose -D-glucopyranose Sugars exist almost exclusively as five and six-membered rings that include 1 oxygen atom in the ring so they are named after furan and pyran. C 2 Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 7
8 Anomeric Carbons: carbon atoms that are bonded to two different oxygen atoms in a carbohydrate The anomeric carbon gets the lowest possible number. Anomeric Carbons two orientations -anomer: -anomer: D-glucose D-glucose Are the anomeric carbons chiral? Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 8
9 Mutarotation: a pure form of an or β carbohydrate is converted to a mixture of the two forms Point an arrow to the anomeric carbons in the structures above. Simple sugars are constantly converting back and forth from the open chain to the closed ring. The furanose and pyranose names are frequently omitted from the sugar name, because it is assumed that we all know sugars are primarily found in their cyclic form. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 9
10 Monosaccharides to Know Glucose - the most widely occurring monosaccharide. D-glucose is a source of energy to fuel biochemical reactions. Fischer Projection aworth projection ( -D-glucose) Galactose - the widely distributed in plant gums and pectins and is found in milk sugar (the disaccharide lactose). It is also synthesized in the body from glucose as a component of glycolipids & glycoproteins. Fischer Projection aworth projection ( -D-galactose) Video Lecture Correction: Fischer Proj for galactose is C C 2 Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 10
11 Monosaccharides to Know Fructose - found in honey, fruit, table sugar (the disaccharide sucrose), and sweeteners (high fructose corn syrup). Fischer Projection aworth projection -D-fructose Modified Monosaccharides Ribose & Deoxyribose These two sugars are found in biomolecules such as ATP, coenzyme A, & nucleic acids (DNA & RNA). ther Modified Monosaccharides found in the fluids that lubricate joints C 2 C - C 2 N 2 C 2 N CC 3 -D-glucose -D-gluconate -D-glucosamine N-acetyl- -D-glucosamine Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 11
12 Carbohydrates Part 2: Stereochemistry of Monosaccharides Glyceraldehyde the simplest sugar What is the relationship between the two possible structures for glyceraldehyde? Note: 1) Most common sugars of biological significance have the D configuration. 2) Fischer Projections another way to show stereochemistry Star each chiral carbon in the following common sugars. Enantiomers: non-superimposable mirror images Diastereomers: non-superimposable stereoisomers that are NT mirror images What is the relationship between the L & D isomers of fructose? What is the relationship between D-glucose & D-galactose? What is the relationship between D-glucose & D-fructose? Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 12
13 Carbohydrates Part 3: Disaccharides & Glycosidic Bonds Glyco- is a prefix used to indicate the presence of sugars in biological molecules Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides or link saccharides to other biological molecules through their hydroxyl groups. Glycosidic bonds always form between the anomeric carbon of the sugar on the left and the hydroxyl group of another sugar or biological molecule on the right. Glycosidic bonds are classified by the configuration of the anomeric carbon ( or ) and the location of the other hydroxyl group. Practice Classifying Glycosidic bonds of these Disaccharides Maltose Lactose Sucrose Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 13
14 Reducing Sugars Not all sugar rings can open. nly the anomeric carbons that are bonded to one hydroxyl group can open. Anomeric carbons bonded to two ether groups are locked closed. C C 2 Identify which of the following rings can open. Find the anomeric carbons and draw arrows to the glycosidic bonds in the compounds below. When the ring can open the sugars can be oxidized, and the sugars are described as reducing sugars in the same way we use the term reducing agent. Which of the sugars above are reducing sugars? C 2 Cu 2+ Benedict's reagent + + Cu 2 C 2 Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 14
15 Name the two monosaccharides below. Draw each monosaccharide in its form using a aworth projection. Draw the disaccharide formed by a -(1,4) glycosidic bond using aworth projections. Is the resulting disaccharide a reducing sugar? C 2 + C 2 Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 15
16 Carbohydrates Part 4: Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are polymers containing > 100 monosaccharides. They are not soluble in water but their many hydroxyl groups become hydrated and form thick suspensions. Important Polysaccharides to know Starch & Glycogen vs Cellulose Starch is comprised of amylose and amylopectin. Carbohydrates with an Introduction to Biochemistry page 16
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