In-Season Dietary Adequacy of Trained Male Cross-Country Runners
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1 International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 1995, 5, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. In-Season Dietary Adequacy of Trained Male Cross-Country Runners Robert A. Niekamp and Janine T. Baer The purpose of this study was to determine the dietary adequacy of 12 collegiate cross-country runners during a competitive season. Four-day diet records were collected twice during the season and analyzed for total daily energy, macronutrients, vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, iron, magnesium, zinc, and calcium. Mean energy intake (3,248 f 590 kcal) was not significantly different from estimated mean energy expenditure (3, kcal). Week 8 mean prealbumin levels were within normal limits (26.8 f 2.8 mgldl). Mean daily CHO intake was 497 f 134 g/day (61.2%). Three to four hours prior to competition a pre-race meal was consumed; it contained 82 f 47 g CHO. Postcompetition CHO intake was delayed an average 2.5 hr; at that time approximately 2.6 f 0.69 g CHO/kg body weight was consumed. The athletes appeared to demonstrate dietary adequacy with the exception of timing of postcompetition carbohydrate consumption. Key Words: diet, endurance runners It is well established that athletes involved in intense daily training must consume a high-carbohydrate diet to maintain optimal training and competitiveness (10, 11). Regimens of carbohydrate loading to prolong time to fatigue have been defined (4) and redefined to maximize performance potential (33). Postexercise carbohydrate replenishment has also been identified as important to support optimal glycogen recovery (22). The reported dietary practices of male long-distance runners, to date, have focused primarily on total macronutrient composition (Table 1) (5, 8, 19,29,30, 34,36,37). Generally such diets do not appear to be in accord with macronutrient recommendations for endurance athletes (10, 11). Only Weight et al. (37) and Nieman et al. (29) reported desirable intake of carbohydrate and fat as a percent of kilocalories. Absolute CHO intake, however, appears low. While Short and At the time of the study R.A. Niekamp was a graduate research assistant in the Department of Health and Nutrition Sciences, University of Cincinnati. J.T. Baer is with the Program in Foods and Nutrition, Department of Human Ecology, The University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH At the time of the study J.T. Baer was with the Department of Health and Nutrition Sciences, University of Cincinnati. Direct correspondence to J.T. Baer.
2 46 / Niekamp and Baer Table 1 Comparison of Diets of Male Distance Runners IV Energy (kcal) CHO Protein Fat --- (g) (%I (g) (%I (g) (%) Alcohol (%I Blair et al. (1981) (5) Clement & Asmundson (1982) (8) Short & Short (1983) (34) Thompson et al. (1983) (36) Peters et al. (1986) (30) Weight et al. (1988) (37) Grandjean (1989) (19) Nieman et al. (1989) (29) Niekamp & Baer (1995) Short (34) reported a higher CHO intake (>500 g/day), CHO intake was still low (as a percent of kilocalories) and fat intake was too high (36% of kilocalories) for subjects in that study. Limiting the interpretation of dietary adequacy for the studies reported is the omission of energy status. Additionally, the dietary composition and timing of pre- and posttraining/competition meals are not reported. An adequate recovery diet is essential for the competitive cross-country endurance athlete. These athletes participate in daily high-intensity training that includes successive days in which two workouts/day are performed. While the 8-km races are usually completed within 30 min, these bouts may also contribute to glycogen depletion depending on intensity of effort (23). It is not uncommon for such athletes to either train or compete daily for the duration of their 3-month season. Hence, these athletes must rely on their diets to maintain glycogen stores to support optimal physical performance. While not specifically known, it is believed that many athletes neglect their recovery diet (3). When dietary adequacy is assessed in competitive endurance athletes, measurements of total energy, macronutrient, and micronutrient intake must include timing and composition of pre- and posttraining/competition intake. Additionally, other markers including body composition measures and biochemical indices of protein and energy status should be determined to confirm dietary adequacy. The purpose of the present study was to assess the dietary adequacy of a group of trained collegiate cross-country runners during a competitive season.
3 Male Cross-Country Runners / 47 Method Subjects Twelve male runners (age f 1.4 years, weight kg, and percent body fat 9.8 f 1.6% participated (Table 2). Fourteen runners originally agreed to participate and signed consent forms approved by the University Internal Review Board prior to the beginning of the study. Two subjects, however, failed to adequately complete diet records and were dropped from the study. Dietary Information The subjects' diets were assessed by two 4-day diet records completed at Weeks 2 and 4 of the season. A nutritionist provided detailed instructions on how to complete the forms. The diet record forms required each subject to provide the time of meals, quantity of food in common measures, and type of food eaten including preparation method. Clarifications were made by the nutritionist directly with the athletes during their scheduled practice time. The diet records were analyzed using the Nutritionist I11 Software Program (N-Squared Computing, Salem, OR). Nutrients analyzed included carbohydrate, protein, fat, iron, magnesium, zinc, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and vitamin B6. Each was compared to the age-matched Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) (17). The first diet record was positioned from Monday through Thursday to assess dietary adequacy during the hardest training days, and the second record was positioned to assess competition and weekend nutrition. At Week 8, 12-hr fasting venous blood samples were drawn and analyzed for serum prealbumin to assess protein-energy status (21). Body Composition Body composition was determined by hydrostatic weighing at Weeks 2 and 12. A standard method was used for hydrodensitometry (9). Residual volume was estimated (39). Repeat determinations (n = 10) were made on each subject; the mean of the highest three scores was used as the criterion measure. Table 2 Characteristics of 12 Trained Male Cross-Country Runners Age (years) Height (em) Weight (kg) Fat (%) Distance run (kmlweek)
4 48 / Niekamp and Baer Energy Expenditure Subjects reported to the laboratory in the morning following a 12-hr fast and 16 hr postexercise. Subjects were instructed to rest quietly with nose clip and mouthpiece in place for 30 min, after which expired gases were collected for approximately 30 min to determine resting energy expenditure (REE). For the REE determination expired air was measured using a Beckman model LB-C02 analyzer and a Beckman model OM-1 lo2 analyzer. Ventilation was measured using a Parkinson-Cow and CD-4 dry gas meter. Energy expenditure was calculated according to the modified Weir equation: kilocalories = [(I. 1 x respiratory quotient) x V02 (38). During regular practice time at Week 3 each subject performed a running exercise bout resembling a typical workout with respect to intensity and duration (Tables 3 and 4). Expired gases were again collected and analyzed for the duration of the exercise bout. This measure was completed to estimate daily energy expenditure attributed to training. Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) was estimated at 10% of resting metabolic rate (RMR) and estimated energy expenditure (EEE) (20). Other activity (OA) outside of daily training was calculated as 20% of REE (4): (REE + EEE) (DIT 1.1) + (OA 0.2 x REE) = estimated daily energy expenditure. Analysis Data were analyzed using an SAS computer software package (Cary, NC). A paired comparisons t test was completed for the difference in estimated energy expenditure and energy intake. Dependent t tests were administered to determine if significant changes in body composition and weight took place over the course of the season. Level of significance was set at the p <.05 level. Diet Results Table 5 presents mean daily nutrient intake as determined from the two 4-day diet records. The two diet records were not significantly different and were thus combined to give a more complete representation of daily dietary practices. Total energy Table 3 Simulated Training Bout Protocol Time (min) Speed (mph) Pace (minlmile)
5 Male Cross-Country Runners / 49 Table 4 Training Schedules of Male Distance Runners Preseason Midseason Late season Monday p.m. 7 miles p.m. Ten 700-m intervals + 6 min Fartlekb a.m. 4 milesa p.m. 8 miles p.m. 6 miles of intervals, various lengths p.m. 5 miles Tuesday a.m. 4 milesa p.m. eight 1-mile intervalsb Wednesday p.m. 11 miles p.m. 8 miles Fart lek a.m. 4 milesa p.m. 7 miles p.m. 4 miles 8-K race p.m. five 400-m intervalsb p.m. 4 miles p.m. 5 miles 8-K race 6 miles Thursday a.m. 4 milesa p.m. 6 miles Friday p.m. 8 miles Saturday 6 miles Sunday a.m. 4 milesa p.m. 6 milesa "Not during regular practice time / may be considered optional. bdoes not include usual 1-3 mile warm-up and 1-2 mile warm-down. expenditure was estimated to be 3,439 f 244 kcallday, which was not significantly different from the total mean dietary intake of 3,248 zk 590 kcal/day. Mean daily CHO intake was 497 f 134 g/day, 61.2% of total energy intake (7.5 g/kg). Mean protein intake was 104 f 29 g/day, 12.8% of total energy intake (1.56 glkg). Serum prealbumin levels at Week 8 were within normal limits at mg/dl (normal = 18 to 36 mg/dl) (20). Fat contributed 25.5% of energy ( g/day). Mean daily micronutrient intake was above 66% of the RDA for males years old. The timing of carbohydrate consumption was within recommended guidelines for the precompetition meal at 3 to 4 hr prior to competition. It contained 82 f 47 g of carbohydrate (1.2 g/day) (Table 6). Seventy one percent of the calories were from carbohydrate. Fat and protein comprised less than 30% of the precompetition energy. Timing of the postcompetition meal was 2.5 hr after competition and consisted of 2.6 g CHO/kg (48.5%), 17.8% protein, and 33.3% fat. Body Cornposifion The change in weight from Week 2 ( kg) to Week 12 ( kg) was positive, kg (p < -05). Fat-free mass accounted for 91% of the weight gain. Changes in percent fat were positive but not significant, %. The increase of kg in lean mass failed to reach statistical significance.
6 Table 5 Nutrient Intake of Male Distance Runners Compared to the RDA (17) i?y 3 b Nutrient 3 Intake 4 days, Intake 4 days, Q training weekendl Combined RDA males period competition intake 8 days years % RDA 2 2 ii;' Q Energy (kcal) CHO (g) Protein (g) Fat (g) Fe (mg) Mg (mg) zn (mg) Ca (mg) Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin C (mg) Thiamin (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Folate (mg) Vitamin B, (mg)
7 Male Cross-Countw Runners / 51 Table 6 Macronutrient Cornpoltion of Pre- and Postcompetition Meals Time (hr) % CHO % Protein % Fat Precompetition Postcompetition Discussion The adequacy of the athletes' diets was demonstrated based on body composition data, dietary intake data, and prealbumin levels. Over the course of the season weight increased. The change in weight was observed to be due to an increase in lean mass of kg, which suggests adequate energy and protein intake. The reported intake of 3,248 kcallday (49.6 kcallkg) is considered adequate for endurance athletes in training (2). Much current research supports the recommendation that endurance athletes need protein in excess of the RDA of 0.8 glkglday. Endurance exercise promotes an increase in protein breakdown and/or a decrease in protein synthesis (14-16, 18, 26, 31, 35). It has been suggested that lean body mass may decrease if high levels (above the RDA) of protein are not consumed by endurance athletes (22). The exact amount of protein intake needed, however, has not been determined, While Lemon et al. (27) recommended protein consumption as high as 1.8 g/kg/ day to cover the needs of all endurance athletes, more conservative recommendations suggest 1.&I.5 g/kg/day (1). In addition to consuming adequate energy, the subjects in this study were observed to consume adequate protein as well (1.56 glkglday). The measured results of body composition, dietary intake, and serum prealbumin levels showed that energy and nutrient intake appeared to be conducive to nitrogen retention and subsequent lean body mass gain. Butterfield and Calloway (7) reported increases in lean body mass in individuals participating in an aerobic exercise program who consumed adequate caloric intake. For the endurance athletes in the present study, carbohydrate nutrition during competition was not a concern, as the athletes completed an 8-km race in less than 30 min. However, preevent nutrition is very important since it can influence carbohydrate utilization and improve performance (28, 32, 41). The precompetition meal was consumed within the recommended time of 3-4 hr prior to the race. It was composed of regular foods that are high in complex carbohydrates, such as bagels and juice. The average CHO intake of 82 g is approximately g less than the recommended amount of 3-4 g CHO/kg to be consumed 3-4 hr before exercise (28, 32,41). The recommendation of 1-4 g CHO/kg, 1-4 hr prior to the event was made based primarily on the performance of cyclists. It is possible that such a high-carbohydrate meal would not be tolerated well by distance runners. While the 82 g CHO will not impair an athlete's performance (32), performance may be enhanced if an amount of CHO closer to the recommended preevent intake is consumed. There is a need for more research on different sport populations regarding preexercise carbohydrate feed-
8 52 / Niekamp and Baer ings, as it is difficult to make generalizations across sports, particularly those involving more mechanical jostling than cycling. Postexercise glycogen resynthesis is an essential need of endurance runners who train hard on consecutive days (10, 11, 21). Glycogen resynthesis depends on a daily high-carbohydrate diet ( glday) (12) and the timing of carbohydrate consumption postexercise (22). If carbohydrate ingestion is withheld 2 hr postexercise, a decrease in glycogen resynthesis can be expected (21). The athletes' posttraining carbohydrate consumption appeared adequate. Despite long training bouts and multiple training sessionslday, which may have depleted 40% of glycogen stores daily (33), athletes were always able to consume carbohydrates within 30 min following training and consumed on average 497 g CHOIday. Postcompetition meals, however, were delayed by 2.5 hr. The muscle glycogen utilization during the race was estimated to be approximately 20% (40 mmol/kg wet weight) (33). Such a delay in postcompetition meals may not be significant enough to impair future performances. However, improved timing of carbohydrate feedings after competition could hasten glycogen repletion and avoid exacerbating the fatigue associated with low glycogen stores due to repeated days of training and competition (23). Despite postcompetition meals being composed primarily of fast food, the athletes were observed to make fairly good food choices. The composition of the meal on average contained 33% of energy as fat, 18% protein, and 49% (176 g) carbohydrate. The carbohydrate consumption equaled 2.6 g/kg; 0.7 g CHOI kg has been suggested to elicit maximal glycogen resynthesis postexercise when ingested immediately following exercise and again within 2 hr (6, 22). The athletes' delay in carbohydrate consumption may have decreased the effectiveness of the carbohydrate consumed, and maximal glycogen resynthesis may have been impaired. Due to their high energy intake and consumption of a variety of foods, the athletes were able to present an adequate intake of micronutrients. There was one individual, though, who consumed a high-energy diet consisting of only a few foods, most of which were high in simple sugars. Consequently, he demonstrated low intakes of iron, magnesium, calcium, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin Bhr and folate. None of the subjects reported use of any type of additional vitamin or mineral supplement. A high-carbohydrate diet providing adequate energy and protein with proper timing of carbohydrate intake is essential to supporting optimal endurance performance. The athletes in this investigation were observed to consume less than the recommended carbohydrate intake precompetition and failed to meet the need for timely carbohydrate consumption postcompetition. Thus, while the athletes were observed to consume a desirable intake of energy, protein, fat, and micronutrients, they required additional education regarding quantity and timing of carbohydrate intake to best serve performance. Coaches are often the most immediate resource concerning nutrition for athletes. They can be more effective if supported by registered dietitians, nutritionists, or athletic trainers knowledgeable about sport nutrition. Following are ideas to help endurance athletes maintain a diet that supports health and optimal performance:
9 Male Cross-Country Runners / 53 Training Provide CHO beverages and water before, during, and after practice. (Beverages containing 610% CHO are effective at maintaining hydration and providing CHO to maintain blood sugar during prolonged training [ 121.) Plan team meals within a training table format. Plan diet education with a registered dietitian or sport nutritionist. Precompetition Schedule a meal 3-4 hr before competition. Pack appropriate food for the precompetition meal. Postcompetition Supply CHO beverages at competitions. (Beverages containing glucose, sucrose, maltodextrins, or corn syrup at 6% or higher concentration are effective at maximizing glycogen resynthesis postexercise [12]. Solid foods are not contraindicated but are often undesirable immediately after exercise.) Schedule meal stops where appropriate food choices are possible. References 1. American Dietetic Association and the Canadian Dietetic Association. Nutrition for physical fitness and athletic performance for adults. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 93: , Applegate, E. Nutritional considerations for ultraendurance performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1: , Benardot, D. (Ed.) Sports Nutrition: A Guide for the Professional Working With Active People (2nd ed.). Chicago: American Dietetic Association, Bergstrom, J., L. Hermansen, E. Hultman, and B. Saltin. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol. Scand. 71: , Blair, S.N., N.M. Ellsworth, W.L. Haskell, M.P. Stem, J.W. Farquhar, and P.D. Wood. Comparison of nutrient intake in middle-aged men and women runners and controls. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 13: , Blom, P.C.S., A.T. Hostmark, 0. Vage, K.R. Kadel, and S. Maehlum. Effect of different post-exercise sugar diets on the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19: , Butterfield, G.E., and D.H. Calloway. Physical activity improves protein utilization in young men. Brit. J. Nutr. 5 1 : , Clement, D.B., and R.C. Asmundson. Nutritional intake and hematological parameters in endurance runners. Phys. Sportsmed. 10:37-43, Consolazio, C., R.E. Johnson, and L.J. Pecora. In Physiological Measurements of Metabolic Functions in Man, New York: McGraw Hill, 1963, pp Costill, D.L. Carbohydrates for exercise: Dietary demands for optimal performance. Int. J. Sportsmed. 9:l-18, Costill, D.L., R. Bowers, G. Branam, and K. Sparks. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J. Appl. Physiol , Costill, D.L., W.M. Sherman, W.J. Fink, C. Maresh, M. Witten, and J.M. Miller. The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle glycogen resynthesis after strenuous running. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:
10 54 / Niekarnp and Baer 13. Coyle, E.F. Timing and method of increased carbohydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition and recovery. J. Sports Sci. 9:29-52, Dohm, G.L., F.R. Puente, C.P. Smith, and A. Edge. Changes in tissue protein levels as a result of endurance exercise. Life Sci , Dohm, G.L., R.T. Williams, G.L. Kasperek, and A.M. vanrig. Increased excretion of urea and N'methylhistidine by rats and humans after a bout of exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 52:27-33, Evans, W.J., C.F. Fisher, R.A. Hoerr, and V.R. Young. Protein metabolism and endurance exercise. Phys. Sportsmed. 11(1):63-72, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances (10th ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, Friedman, J.E., and P.W.R. Lemon. Effect of chronic endurance exercise on retention of dietary protein. Int. J. Sportsmed. 10: , Grandjean, A.C. Macronutrient intake of U.S. athletes compared with the general population and recommendations made for athletes. Am. 3. Clin. Nutr. 49: , Horton, E.S. An overview of the assessment and regulation of energy balance in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 38: , Ingenbleek, Y., M. DeVischer, and P. DeNayer. Measurement of prealbumin as index of protein calorie malnutrition. Lancet 2: , Ivy, J.L., A.L. Katz, C.L. Cutler, W.M. Sherman, and E.F. Coyle. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: Effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J. Appl. Physiol. 64: , ~ei'zer, H., A.H. Kuipers, G. van Kranenberg, and P. Geurten. Influence of liquid and solid meals on muscle glycogen resynthesis, plasma fuel hormone response, and maximal physical working capacity. Int. J. Sports Med. 8:99-104, Kirwan, J.P., D.L. Costill, J.B. Mitchell, J.A. Houmard, and M.G. Flynn. Carbohydrate balance in competitive runners during successive days of intense training. J. Appl. Physiol. 65: , Lemon, P.W.R. Protein and exercise: Update Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19: , Lemon, P.W.R., and J.P. Mullin. Effect of initial muscle glycogen levels on protein catabolism during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 48: , Lemon, P.W.R., K.E. Yarasheki, and D.G. Dolny. The importance of protein for athletes. Sports Med. 1: , Neufer, P.D., D.L. Costill, M.G. Flynn, J.P. Kirwan, J.B. Mitchell, and J. Houmard. Improvements in exercise performance: Effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J. Appl. Physiol. 62: , Nieman, D.C., J.V. Butler, D.M. Pollett, S.J. Dietrich, and R.D. Lutz. Nutrient intake of marathon runners. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 89: , Peters, A.J., R.H. Dressendorfer, J. Rimar, and C.L. Keen. Diets of endurance runners competing in a 20-day road race. Phys. Sportsmed. 14(1):63-70, Rennie, M.J., R.H.T. Edwards, S. Krywawych, C.T.M. Davies, D. Halliday, J.C. Waterlow, and D.J. Millward. Effect of exercise on protein turnover in man. Clin. Sci. 61 : , Sherman, W.M., G. Brodowicz, D.A. Wright, W.K. Allen, and J. Simonsen. Effects of 4h pre-exercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21: , 1989.
11 Male Cross-Country Runners / Sherman, W.M., D.L. Costill, W.J. Fink, and J.M. Miller. Effect of exercise-diet manipulation on muscle glycogen and its subsequent utilization during performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 2: , Short, S.H., and W.R. Short. Four-year study of university athletes' dietary intake. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 82: , Tamopolsey, M.A., J.D. MacDougall, and S.A. Atkinson. Influence of protein intake and training status on nitrogen balance and lean body mass. J. Appl. Physiol. 64: , Thompson, P.D., B. Lazarus, E. Cullinane, L.O. Henderson, T. Musliner, R. Eshleman, and P.N. Herbert. Exercise, diet, or physical characteristics as determinants of HDLlevels in endurance athletes. Atherosclerosis 46: , Weight, L.M., T.D. Noakes, D. Labadarios, J. Graves, P. Jacobs, and P.A. Berman. Vitamin and mineral status of trained athletes including the effects of supplementation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 47: , Weir, J.B. New method for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism. J. Physiol. 109: 1-9, Wilmore, J.H. Further simplification of a method for determination of residual lung volume. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12: , Wilmore, J.H., K.C. Wambsgans, M. Brenner, C.E. Broder, I. Paifmans, J.A. Volpe, and K.M. Wilmore. Is there energy conservation in amenorrheic compared with eumenonheic distance runners? J. Appl. Physiol. 72:15-22, Wright, D.A., W.M. Sherman, and A.R. Dembach. Carbohydrate feedings before, during or in combination improve endurance performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 71 :
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