Unit 3 Maintaining Dynamic Equilibrium I Topic: Human Digestive System Page 1 of 13. The Chemical Foundation of Digestion

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1 Page 1 of 13 The Chemical Foundation of Digestion All organisms, regardless of size or complexity, have some method to obtain the essential nutrients they need for survival. Heterotrophs: Organisms that depend on organic molecules manufactured by other living things. Humans are ingestive heterotrophs. Ingestive = nutrients are taken in through the mouth. Autotrophs : Organisms that nourish themselves using inorganic material (examples: water and carbon dioxide). Nutrients Nutrient: Any substance used by the human body to maintain homeostasis. Essential Nutrients The basic raw materials organisms need to make their own structures, perform functions, and obtain energy for survival. Essential = Needed and must be obtained from the organism s diet. Six Essential Nutrients water carbohydrates proteins fats (lipids) minerals vitamins Your body functions best when these essential nutrients are present in correct proportions. A diet that satisfies this is called a balanced diet. 1. Water major role in the body is to act as a solvent. Important for chemical reactions ( Hydrolysis) Needed for respiration (Alveoli) Needed for movement of materials (osmosis) Main source: food and liquids.

2 Page 2 of Carbohydrates Consist of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO). Basic unit of Carbohydrates is called the Monosaccharide (Simple Sugar). o Examples of Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose o Disaccharide: 2 monosaccharides bonded together. Ex: maltose o Polysaccharide: many monosaccharides bonded together. Ex: cellulose, glycogen, starch Function: provide a source of energy. Excess carbohydrates are converted to fat and stored. Food sources: glucose, rice, bread, pasta, etc. Q. How are monosaccharides joined together to make Di and Polysaccharides? A. Dehydration Synthesis Reaction This is a reaction in which two small molecules are joined together to make a larger molecule by removing (dehydrating) water. Dehydration reactions happen in fats and proteins as well. Ex: Glucose (monsaccharide) + Glucose (monosaccharide) Maltose (disaccharide) Water is removed Water removed

3 Page 3 of 13 Q. How do Carbohydrates provide energy? A. Hydrolysis Reactions This is a reaction where larger molecules are broken/split into smaller molecules by the addition of water. Hydrolysis reactions happen whenever large molecules such as polypeptides and lipids are broken down into smaller molecules. Energy is released when the bonds of the large molecule are broken in the process of creating the smaller molecules. 3. Proteins Made up of strings of amino acids called peptides. Amino Acid: The basic building block of a protein. o Humans have 20 amino acids that make up all the proteins in the body. o 8 Amino acids are essential meaning they have to come from their diet. Proteins are made up of peptides created when more than one amino acid joins together. o Dipeptide = A combination of 2 amino acids. o Polypeptide = A combination of many (poly) amino acids. Function: include, cell growth and repair, enzymes in your body are all proteins (act in metabolism), and can supply energy. Food sources: meat, milk, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, etc.

4 Page 4 of Lipids Contains Fats, Waxes and Oils. Structure of a Lipid o Made up of a 3 Fatty Acids + Glycerol Function: Provides a source of energy, insulating the body from the cold, and protecting organs from injury. Also used for Cell Membranes (Cholesterol) Food sources: margarine, butter, meat, cheese, nuts, eggs, etc. 5. Minerals These are inorganic compounds that your body needs in small amounts. Function: carry out certain chemical reactions, and helping to maintain acid-base balance within the body. Readily absorbed into the bloodstream. Ex: Iron, calcium, potassium etc. 6. Vitamins Compounds required in very small amounts in diet. There are Two types of Vitamins: o Fat Soluble Vitamins Vitamins that dissolve into fats. Vitamins A, D, E and K are Fat soluble. o Water Soluble Vitamins Vitamins that dissolve into water. Vitamins B and C are water soluble. These vitamins need to be replaced daily. Function: act as coenzymes, chemicals needed to make enzymes function.

5 Page 5 of 13 The Human Digestive System Function of Digestive System Break down food into small useful substances that can be absorbed into the circulatory system where nutrients are transported to individual cells. Digestion The process of breaking necessary substances into smaller molecules so that they can be absorbed in the body. Digestion occurs in the alimentary canal, a continuous tube beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus. Structure of the Human Digestive System

6 Page 6 of 13 Two basic types of digestion A. Mechanical Digestion Initial stage of physically breaking down food into smaller pieces. Occurs mainly in the mouth where teeth chew food and tongue manipulates it. Some mechanical digestion occurs in the stomach (rugae). B. Chemical Digestion Separation of food into molecular components by chemical means. Process begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva which contains the digestive enzyme amylase. Chemically breaking down food continues through the stomach and is completed in the small intestine. Mechanical and chemical digestion act together to speed up the digestion process. Mechanical digestion aids chemical digestion by exposing more food particles to digestive enzymes. Major organs and glands involved in digestive process 1. Mouth Digestion begins here. Contains teeth used for tearing food apart (mechanical digestion). Contains tongue that moves food into position for digestion. Contains Salivary glands that secrete the enzyme Saliva. o Saliva: Liquid in the mouth that lubricates and moistens food. Contains the enzyme Salivary Amylase that converts Starch into Maltose. Digestion in the Mouth Salivary Amylase Starch > Maltose Food enters the mouth where teeth begin breaking it down. The salivary glands secrete mucin which makes the food slippery and helps prepare it for further digestion. Salivary Amylase breaks down starches into maltose. At the same time the tongue shapes the food into a round ball called a bolus. Swallowing (an involuntary response) is initiated when food touches the back of the tongue. Food is passed into the esophagus. 2. Esophagus

7 Page 7 of 13 A hollow tube leading from the mouth to the stomach. No digestion occurs here. Lined with circular and longitudinal muscles that undergo a series of muscle contractions called Peristalsis. o Peristalsis: Series of muscle contractions that forces food through the alimentary canal. Contains the Esophageal sphincter muscle at the lower end of the esophagus o Function of Esophageal Sphincter: Controls amount of food entering stomach. 3. Stomach A muscular, j-shaped, sac-like organ. Protein digestion occurs here. Has two distinct regions: o Cardiac Region: Region of stomach closest to heart. o Pyloric Region: Lower portion of the stomach. (Closest to the feet) Contains folds of smooth muscle called Rugae. o Rugae: Folds of muscle in the stomach that increases the surface area for digestion and also contract to break up food into smaller pieces in a process called churning. Churning: Contractions of muscles in the stomach in order to break up food. (Mechanical digestion) The stomach secretes Gastric Juice that digests proteins. o Gastric Juice: Fluid in the stomach composed of HCl (hydrochloric acid), water and Pepsinogen. Pepsinogen: Inactive enzyme in the stomach that changes into pepsin in the presence of HCl. Pepsin: Enzyme that breaks proteins into long polypeptides. Proteins Pepsin > long polypeptides Contains the pyloric sphincter at the bottom of the stomach at the entrance of the small intestine. o Pyloric Sphincter: Ring of muscle that controls the amount of food entering the small intestine. Digestion in the stomach

8 Page 8 of 13 A bolus enters the stomach via the cardiac sphincter. Gastric glands secrete gastric juice that aid in the digestion of proteins. Pepsin changes proteins into long polypeptides. When digestion in the stomach is finished, an acidic soupy liquid remains called chyme Chyme enters the small intestine by passing through the pyloric sphincter. 4. Small Intestine Most important organ of the digestive tract. Approximately 6 metres long. Site of most chemical digestion and absorption of food molecules into the blood. Subdivided into three parts: A. Duodenum First region of the small intestine. Pancreatic and bile ducts enter here making it a site where chemical digestion occurs. Site of final Carbohydrate, Protein and Lipid digestion. Contains folds with finger-like projections called villi (microvilli) that serve to increase the surface area for digestion. Structure and Function of a Villus Finger like structure that serves to absorb nutrients. Contains a central structure called a lacteal that absorbs fats and send them to the lymphatic system. Lacteal is surrounded by blood vessels that absorb Amino acids and monosaccharides into the blood. B. Jejunum Contains many folds and intestinal glands in order to breakdown any remaining protein or carbohydrates. C. Ileum Contains few and very small villi. main function is to absorb nutrients Pushes remaining undigested material through to the large intestine.

9 Page 9 of Large Intestine Divided into different structures: caecum, colon, rectum, and anus. Much shorter than the small intestine although the diameter is much larger (basis for name). Separated from small intestine by a valve. Caecum is a sac-like structure at one end of the small intestine where the appendix is found. Colon is the main portion of the large intestine where water and dissolved minerals are absorbed from undigested food. The colon has three parts. Ascending Colon Portion of colon on the right side of the body. Transverse Colon Portion of colon going across the abdomen. Descending Colon Portion of the colon on the left side of the body. Colon also contains intestinal bacteria that help breakdown undigested material to provide more nutrients and can produce vitamins B-12 and K. The mass of indigestible material in the large intestine is known as feces. Feces passes through the rectum and out the body through the anus. The anus contains rings of muscle called the anal sphincter that allow the body to control timing of elimination to some extent. 6. Pancreas Organ located under the stomach. Secretes several enzymes into the duodenum that aid in digestion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. Enzymes and Chemical Secretions of the Pancreas Name of Enzyme/Secretion Function Bicarbonate ions Neutralize acidity of chyme Provide a basic ph so enzymes can work. Pancreatic Amylase Break Polysaccharides into monosaccharides Pancreatic Lipase Break lipids into fatty acids and glycerol Trypsin/Chymotrypsin Break polypeptides into shorter peptides.

10 Page 10 of Liver Produces Bile that aids with digestion of fats. Converts unused glucose into glycogen that is stored in the liver. Bile Green liquid substance made from cholesterol. Function: Emulsifies (breaks up) fats into small droplets called micelles to increase surface area for digestion. 8. Gall Bladder Structure located under the liver. Stores bile. Pathway of food through the Human Digestive System 1. Mouth 2. Esophagus 3. Esophageal Sphincter 4. Stomach 5. Pyloric Sphincter 6. Small Intestine 7. Large Intestine 8. Anus

11 Page 11 of 13 Chemical Digestion and Enzymes Organ Mouth Stomach Associated Glands Salivary glands Gastric glands Chemical Digestion (Enzyme Action) Salivary amylase breaks starch into maltose Pepsin breaks proteins into shorter polypeptides Mechanical Digestion Teeth and tongue Peristalsis 3 times a minute Other Secretions Mucin and water HCl kills bacteria, breaks down cellulose, lowers ph for pepsin Water Liver and Gall Bladder None Trypsin/Chymotrypsin further break down polypeptides into shorter polypeptides Mucus protects stomach Erepsins break simple polypeptides into amino acids Small Intestine Pancreas Pancreatic lipase breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch into maltose Peptidases break simple polypeptides into amino acids Maltase breaks maltose into simple sugars Peristalsis occurs regularly Bile emulsifies lipids Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes chyme Mucus lubricates food Intestinal Glands Sucrase breks sucrose into simple sugars Large Intestine Mucus glands Lactase breaks lactose into simple sugars None Water is reabsorbed Mucus to lubricate passageway

12 Page 12 of 13 Digestive Disorders Problems with the digestive system can range from minor inconveniences to a major impediment to a normal life. We will discuss the following 6 digestive disorders. 1. Ulcers 2. Gall Stones 3. Ileitis 4. Colitis 5. Anorexia Nervosa 6. Bulimia Nervosa 1. Ulcers Slow healing sores in the linings of the stomach and intestines. Causes: Acids Causes breakdown of mucus layer of stomach and intestines. Heliobacter pylori Acid resistant bacteria that causes mucus production to stop. Lifestyle Stress, smoking, alcohol consumption Cures/Treatments Medications to reduce acid production Lifestyle change 2. Gall Stones Hard masses that form in the gall bladder. Cholesterol in the bile precipitates out as a solid forming crystals. Causes Obesity Alcohol Heredity Treatments Ultrasound (busts up the gall stone so it can pass) Diet Changes (lower fat content diet reduce cholesterol) Surgery (Removal of gall bladder).

13 Page 13 of Ileitis Inflammation of the Ileum causing much pain. Inflammation causes intestine to empty often causing diarrhea. Causes Relatively unknown Does run in families Treatments/Cures No cure Treatment includes drugs to reduce swelling Surgical removal of affected area 4. Colitis Inflammation and ulceration of the lining of the Colon. Affects the innermost lining of the colon. Causes bleeding, diarrhea and abdominal pain. Causes Relatively unknown Does run in families Treatments/Cures No cure Treatment includes drugs to reduce swelling Surgical removal of affected area 5. Anorexia Nervosa Eating disorder where person has a fear of gaining weight and they go on a very restrictive diet Person often loses weight and has a lack of nutrients to the cells of body. Many complications such as constipation, heart failure, organ failure can occur. 6. Bulimia Nervosa Eating disorder where a person has episodes of binge eating followed by purging by vomiting or taking laxatives. Very dangerous because it affects several organs Damage to heart, kidneys, esophagus and teeth are common.

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