Utilization of Treated Mangrof Leaves Meal in Pullet Diets and its Effect on Subsequent Hens Performance

Transcription

1 Interntionl Journl of Poultry Science 5 (7): , 2006 ISSN Asin Network for Scientific Informtion, 2006 Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel in Pullet Diets nd its Effect on Susequent Hens Performnce M.A. Al-Hrthi Fculty of Meteorology Environmentl nd Arid Lnd Agriculture, King Adulziz University, Sudi Ari Astrct: This work imed to improve the nutritive vlue of mngrof leves mel y cooking for 30 minutes or y supplementing either iogen or spices mixture e.g. Crdmom, Cumin, Hot nd Blck Pepper. The effects of feeding this mel on the productive performnce during pullets development (8-20 wks of ge) nd lying hens periods (21-28 wks of ge) were determined. Four hundred nd fifty 8- week old Hy- line egg strin femle chicks were rndomly divided into 15 dietry tretments in 5 replictes ech of 6 irds. Ech group during the studied periods ws fed one of the 5 experimentl diets without or with either iogen or spices mixture. Growth performnce nd nutrient digestiility during the pullet period (8-20 wks of ge), while ge t sexul mturity, egg production trits nd the chnges in ody weight, ovry nd oviduct, spleen nd liver weight studies during the lying period (21-28 wks of ge) were studied. Results otined showed tht the proximte nlysis of mngrof leves mel showed tht it contins resonle mounts of protein nd nitrogen free extrct s well s reltively high mount of fier. Boiling process tends to improve the mngrof mel content of protein nd decrese its content of sh nd some of the nti-nutritionl fctors such s tnnins. Improved feed conversion ws ssocited with incresed feed intke which contriuted to the tendency of increse in ody weight. Cooking tretment significntly incresed pullets growth gin nd improved feed conversion rtio, wheres feed intke nd the numer of ded pullets were not ffected. Although, either Biogen or spices mixture hd no enhncing effect on growth gin, feed intke nd feed conversion rte tended to improve. Incresing inclusion level of mngrof mel up to 10% significntly decresed lying rte, egg mss nd impired feed conversion. The opposite ws true with 5% of the tested mteril since it imposed less effect. Neither oiling process nor either studied feed dditives (iogen nd spices mixture) hd enhncing effect on most of the studied prmeters of lying hens performnce. It my e concluded tht pullets cn tolerte cooked mngrof leves mel t level 5% lone or 10% with Biogen supplementtion to chieve comprle feed conversion to tht of the control. Along the sme line, lying hens cn tolerte this tested mteril t level 5% lone without dversely ffecting the lyer performnce. Key words: Mngrof leves, egg production, Biogen supplementtion Introduction In mny countries, including Sudi Ari, poultry feed is sed primrily on corn nd soyen mel which eing the most expensive components of poultry diets. Fortuntely, high fier contining feedstuffs re utilized successfully in pullets nd lyers nutrition. Aki nd Mtsumto (1978) found tht feeding of cellulose did not ffect ody weight gin nd feed efficiency. Vrgs nd Ner (1984) found tht dietry fier (nutrients density) hd no significnt effect on egg production, egg weight, ody weight chnge nd energy lnce. El-Deek et l. (1995) using experimentl diets contining corn with co, rice polishing nd whet rn t 20% or other comintion of ech two (40%) or three (60%) ingredients showed tht Alexndri pullets growth during 8 to 23 wks of ge, feed conversion rtio, egg numer t 10% egg production nd mortlity rte were not ffected y dietry composition. Moreover, El-Deek et l. (1988) with csurins rnch lets; Osei et l. (1990) with gliricidi lef mel; Yssein et l. (1998) with leucen leucocephl nd Tlt (2003) with kochi indic indicted tht, no dverse effects were recorded on performnce of pullets nd lying hens. On the other hnd, Erstow et l. (1982) reported tht pectin, lignin nd lginte reduced chicks growth s feeding inclusion levels of dietry folcin-contining diet. Mngrof is fst- growing leguminous plnts. Its leves re widely regrded s source of resonle qulity protein (Ntionl Acdemy of Sciences, 1979) which mkes it promising feed for poultry. Like most hlophytes, its sh content nd nti-nutritionl ctivity of cell wll, non strch polyscchrides (NSP), hd n impiring effects on growth of irds (Choct nd Anninson, 1992 nd King et l., 1997). Consequently, severl feed processing techniques eing introduced in n ttempt to improve the nutritive qulity of the nonconventionl feedstuffs through correcting their nutritionl defect. Ghzlh (1996) explined the eneficil effect of oiling leucen lef mel in wter to the ility of wter s solvent on the hydrogen onds exist etween the phenolic groups which represent the structure of the 598

2 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 1: Proximte chemicl nlysis of rw nd oiled Mngrof leves mel Type of mel Dry Crude Crude Ether Crude NEF,% Tnnins, mtter,% protein,% fier,% extrct,% sh,% mg/g Rw Boiled memosine nd tnnin nuclei therey, converting these diets re shown in Tle 2 which were formulted to e deleterious mterils to less toxic form. Also, the iso-coloric nd iso-nitrogenous to meet strin negtive effects of nti-nutritive sustnces re normlly requirements ccording to pullets nd lying hens eliminted y heting (Ar nd Dle, 1990,). The mngement nd feeding guide. Individul ody weight present dvntge of nturl feed dditives could of irds to the nerest g. t 8, 11, 14, 17 nd 20 wks of improve the utiliztion of nutrient sustnces for poultry ge were mesured, then weight gin ws clculted. diets (Mkled, 1993). Biogen is kind of non-ntiiotic Feed consumption for ech replicte ws lso feed supplement. It s min ingredients include llicin, mesured during the sme studied experimentl orgnic selenium, high unit hydrolytic enzymes. Hence, periods nd feed conversion rtio ws then clculted. it hs prticulr good flvor nd ppetizing function At the end of pullet-development period ( 20 wks old), which cn increse the pltility of feed, promote the totl collection method for excret ws employed to secretion of digestive fluids nd stimulte the ppetite determine nutrients digestiility. Excrement smples (Mon Osmn, 2002). Moreover, there is trend to use (feces + urine) were dried t 45 5C for five dys nd their different spices to improve nutrient utiliztion with dry mtter, crude protein, ft, crude fier nd sh content considerle success (Al-Hrthi, 2002 nd Ado Zein s well s those of feed were determined ccording to et l., 2003). the procedure of A. O. A. C (1990) nd expressed on Due to the scrcity of informtion concerning the nutritive dry mtter sis. vlue of mngrof leves mel s feedstuff in the pullet During the experimentl period of egg production (21- nd lying hen diet, the present reserch ws 28) wks old, chnges in ody weight, egg production undertken to investigtes to wht extent mngrof leves (h/d), egg weight, feed intke nd feed conversion rtio mel could e included in pullets nd lyers diets were mesured. Then, ge t 30% lying rte, egg without depressing their performnce. The effect of mss nd feed conversion rte were clculted. At the treting the tested mteril with oiling wter nd end of the studied lying period (28 wks old), five hens incorporting Biogen nd mixture of different spices were rndomly chosen from ech tretment nd supplemented to the experimentl diets of pullet nd slughtered to determine the effect of studied tretments lying hen on their productive performnce ws studied on the reltive nd solutes weights of oviduct, ovry, s well. spleen nd liver. Anlysis of vrince ws performed using SAS softwre computer progrm (SAS, 1985) nd student Newmn Klus Test to otin the different proilities. Anlysis of vrince ws done using three wys nlysis of vrince testing the min effects of Mngrof levels, processing (oiling tretment nd feed dditives) nd the interction mong them. Mterils nd Methods Four hundred nd fifty -8 week old Hy - line chicks s commercil egg strin were used for this study. Birds were rered in environmentl controlled house t poultry experimentl frm, fculty of Meteorology Environmentl nd Arid Lnd Agriculture, King Adulziz University. Prt of the tested mteril (mngrof leves mel) ws processed y cooking in oiling wter for 30 minutes nd then dried to ~ 90% dry mtter in ir ventilted oven. Cooked nd rw mngrf leves were ground in hmmer mill to otin homogenous products for chemicl nlysis, ccording to the officil methods (A.O.A.C, 1990) nd feed formultion. Dietry tretments included 3 levels of either rw or cooked mngrof leves mel (0, 5 nd 10%). Biogen* Results nd Discussion Nutritive vlue of mngrof leves mel: The chemicl nlysis of rw nd oiled mngrof leves mel re presented in Tle 1. The results indicted tht it contins resonle mounts of crude protein, ft, nitrogen free extrct (NFE) nd high mount of crude fier. By cooking, the crude fier nd sh content were decresed y out 6.89 nd 13.95%, respectively. (0.5 g/kg) nd spices mixture ( 2 g./kg) e.g. crdmom, Therefore, the tested mteril could e considered cumin, hot nd lck pepper supplementtion (1:1:1:1) suitle feed for feeding poultry. Tnnins content of were incorported to the studied pullet nd lyer diets. mngrof leves mel were lso reduced y out 21.3% Ech of the 15 dietry tretments included 5 replictes due to cooking. of 6 chicks ech. Birds were ssigned to ech dietry This my e ttriuted to the effect of oiled wter s tretment nd housed in 90 x 90x 40- wire cge. The solvent on the hydrogen onds exist etween the composition nd clculted nlysis of the experimentl phenolic groups which represent the structure of the 599

3 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 2: Composition nd clculted nlyses of the pullets nd lyers experimentl diets Ingredients Mngrof levels in pullet diets,% Mngrof levels in Lying diets,% Yellow corn Soyen mel (44%cp) Whet rn Mngrof leves mel Commercil oil lend Limestone Diclcium Phosphte Vit + Min mix NCl DL-methionine Totl Clculted vlues:me, Kcl/Kg diet Crude protein,% TSAA, % Lyine,% C, % Aville P, % vitmins nd minerls mixture provide per kilogrm of diet: Vitmin A (s ll-trns-retinly cette); 12000IU; vitmin E (ll rc-"- tocopheryl cette); 10IU; k 3 3mg; Vit. D 3,2200 ICU; rioflvin,10mg; C pntothente, 10mg; nicin,20 mg; choline chloride, 500mg; vitmin B 12, 10Ug ; vitmin B 6,105mg.; thimine (s thimine mononitrte), 2.2 mg; folic cid, 1mg; D-iotin, 50ug. Trce minerl (milligrms per kilogrm of diet): Mn, 55; Zn,50; Fe, 30; Cu,10; Se, 1 nd Ethoxyquin 3 mg. Tle 3: Body Weight nd gins of Hy-line pullets during (8-20) wks of ge s ffected y levels of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture Mngrof Boiling Feed Body weight, t Totl gin, level, % dditive (8-20) wks 8- wks 11- wks 14- wks 17- wks 20- wks Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment Men effect of feed dditives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS NS NS Boiling NS NS NS 0.01 NS 0.05 Feed dditives NS NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS NS NS NS NS NS Level x Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS Boiling X Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS Level X Boiling X Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS - Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. 600

4 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 4: Feed Consumption of Hy- line pullets during 8-20 wks of ge s ffected y level of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture Mngrof Boiling Feed Feed consumption, g./ird during level, % dditive wks wks whs wks 8-20 wks Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment Men effect of feed dditives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS Boiling NS NS NS NS NS Feed dditives 0.02 NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS NS NS NS NS Level x Additives NS NS NS NS NS Boiling X Additives NS NS NS NS NS Level X Boiling X Additives NS NS NS NS NS - Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. tnnin nuclei. Therey, converting hese deleterious mterils to less toxic form nd improving the feeding vlue of the tested. Ad-All (1993); Ghzlh (1996) nd Tlt (2003) who found tht oiling process of the tested feedstuff decresed some of the nti-nutritionl fctors such s tnnins. Pullet-development performnce: Results of pullets performnce during different growth periods re presented in Tle (3, 4, 5 nd 6). Considering the whole period, it is cler tht including mngrof leves mel up to 10% in the experimentl pullet diets linerly incresed feed consumption, lthough ll experimentl diets were formulted to stisfy nutrient requirements of pullets ccording to the strin ctlog recommendtion. This increment ws significnt y out 4.68% over tht of the control. It my e relted to the fct tht the irds hve to increse their feed intke to meet energy requirements. Also, tendency for pullets ody weight chnge to increse ws noticed mong experimentl irds in this respect ut such increse ws insignificnt. Such finding could e ttriuted to the ility of mngrof leves mel to provide enough nd dequte nutrients for norml development of the studied irds. Along the sme line, the digestiility of OM, CP, EE, CF nd C were not significntly ffected y incresing inclusion levels of the tested mteril up to 10 %, indicting no dverse effects on nutrient utiliztion. So, improved feed conversion ws ssocited with incresed feed intke which contriuted to the tendency of increse in ody weight. Mortlity rte ws lso not ffected. The present finding is well correlted with the findings of El-Deek, (1995 nd 2003 ) nd Tlt (2003) who indicted tht high fier contining diets hd no dverse effect on mortlity rte. Although, the est vlues of growth gin nd feed conversion rtio were otined s using 5% of mngrof leves mel in the experimentl diet, no significnt difference ws found etween this tretment nd tht of the control. Concerning oiling process of mngrof leves mel, it 601

5 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 5: Feed conversion rtio nd numer of ded Hy- line pullets during (8-20) of ge s ffected y level of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture Mngrof Boiling Feed Feed conversion rtio during period of N. Of level, % Additive dedd t (8-11) (11-17) (14-17) (17-20) (8-20) (8-20) wks Wks wks wks wks wks Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment ? ? 0.5 Men effect of feet dditives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS NS NS NS Boiling NS NS NS NS Feed dditives NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS NS NS NS NS Level x Additives NS NS NS NS NS Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. is ovious tht cooking tretment significntly incresed et l. (2002), Al-Hrthi (2002) nd El- Ghmry et l. pullets growth gin y out 3.1% nd improved FCR y (2004). However, It is worthy to note tht function of out 2.95% wheres, no significnt effect ws recorded spices mixture is more effective thn Biogen one (2.6 for the prmeter of feed consumption. Boiling tretment vs.1.3%). Furthermore, supplemented diets with either hd no effect on the numer of ded pullets. This Biogen or different spices ddition hd no significnt improvement my e ttriuted to increse the nutritive effect on OM, CP, EE, CF nd C digestiility s well s vlue of the tested mteril s result of reducing the the numer of ded irds. It my e concluded tht the nti-nutritionl sustnces such s tnnins nd sh lck of enhncing effect of different feed dditives used content (Svihus et l., 1997; Ysr nd Fores, 1999, herein indicted tht pullets performnce ws stisfied 2000; Tlt, 2003). Inspection in Tle 6, it is cler tht y composition of the experiment diets. oiling tretment hd no significnt effect on the Regrding interction effects, growth, feed consumption, digestiility of OM, EE, CF, CP nd C, while, crude feed conversion rtio nd mortlity were not significntly protein digestiility ws incresed y out 1.4% over ffected y the interction etween inclusion levels of the un-cooked one. mngrof leves mel with either oiling process or feed Regrding the feed dditives effects, either Biogen or dditives, nor y oiling tretment nd feed dditives mixture of studied spices supplementtion hd no expect tht of feed conversion prmeter, nor y the enhncing effect on growth gin nd feed intke, three wy interction etween inclusion levels of wheres feed conversion rte tended to improve ut mngrof mel, feed dditives nd oiling tretment. On without significnt. The effectiveness of these dditions the other hnd, there ws significnt interction etween ws in greement with those reported y Mon Osmn inclusion levels of the tested mteril nd either oiling 602

6 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 6: Nutrient digestiility of Hy-line pullets s ffected y level of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture during (8-20) wks of ge Mngrof Boiling Feed Digestiility of nutrient,% level, % dditive CP EE CF OM CA Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment Men effect of feed dditives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS NS 0.04 NS NS Boiling NS NS NS NS NS Feed dditives NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS 0.03 NS NS NS Level x Additives NS 0.01 NS NS NS Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS - Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. process or feed dditives for digestiility of EE. This out 4.98% over tht of the control. These results re in indictes tht the effect of either oiling tretment or feed greement with those reported y El-Deek et l. (1988) dditives on ft utiliztion depends on inclusion levels of who found tht csurins rnch lets up to 8% in lying mngrof leves mel. Generlly, gret ttention should hen diets hd no dverse effect on egg production. Also, e directed to tnnins nd sh content of the tested Udediie nd Lgwe (1989) showed tht pigeon pe lef mteril which might e criticl fctors nd could e mel in lying rtion did not ffect egg yield, while overcome y cooking in oiling wter for 30 minutes incresed inclusion level up to 20% significntly plus Biogen supplementtion. So, it my e concluded decresed lying rte. On the other hnd, incresing tht pullet cn tolerte cooked mngrof leves mel inclusion level of mngrof mel up to 10% significntly even t level of 5% lone s non-trditionl feedstuff decresed lying rte, egg mss nd impired FCR or 10% of this tested mteril with Biogen however, feed intke nd weight gin ws significntly supplementtion to chieve comprle feed incresed. Similr to this finding, Udediie nd Lgwe conversion to tht of the control. (1989) reveled tht incresing inclusion level of Pigeon pe lef up to 20% significntly decresed egg Lying hens performnce: The results in Tle 7, production. The inferior performnce could e ttriuted indicted tht lthough dietry mngrof leves mel t to perhps to the formultion of protein-tnnin 5% hd no significnt effect on the prmeters of lying complexes in the gut which results in limiting dietry rte, egg weight, egg mss nd feed conversion during protein vilility (Akr nd Gupt, 1985). Menwhile, the experimentl period, wks of ge period, vlue no dverse effect ws recorded on mortlity rte, ge t of feed consumption ws significntly incresed y 30% lying rte, ovry weight nd its percentge, spleen 603

7 M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Tle 7: Lyers performnce s ffected y level of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture during (21-28) wks of ge Mngrof Boiling Additive Age t Body Lying performnce levels, % 30% weight Lying chnges Lying Egg Egg Feed FCR N. 0f rte, d. rte,% Weight, mss, intke, Ded (g.) (g.) (g.) hens Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment Men effect of feed dditrives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS NS NS Boiling NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Feed dditives NS 0.02 NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Level X Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling x Additives NS NS NS 0.03 NS NS NS NS,Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. nd liver weight (Tle 7 nd 8). This my led us to significntly incresed y out 5.54 nd 3.42% over tht mention tht lying hens hve more developed of Biogen nd control tretments, respectively. Also, digestive system ( gut cpcity, micoflor nd enzymtic Spleen weight nd its percentge ws significntly secretion), therey could neutrlize NSPs (El-Deek et l., incresed. The opposite ws seen with the ody weight 2003). chnges nd ovry weight nd its percentge which Boiling tretment hd no enhncing effect on lying significntly decresed compred with tht of the control. performnce, ge t 30% lying nd ody weight However, either Biogen or spices mixture chnges (Tle 7). Similr oservtion ws recorded supplementtion hd no significnt effect on the with the reproductive orgns nd its percentge s well prmeters of ge t 30% egg production, lying rte, s spleen nd liver (Tle 8). It seems to gree with n egg mss, feed intke nd feed conversion. erlier oservtion of Hussin et l., (1991) nd As supplementing tested mteril with either Biogen, Ghzlh, (1996), who indicted tht tnnins content spices mixture, no significnt interction ws oserved might e more criticl fctor in determining the in most of the studied trits of the productive performnce of lyers which could e overcome y performnce. Exception ws seen with egg weight s oiling process. using mngrof levels nd feed dditives s well s three Regrdless of mngrof mel levels nd oiling wy interction etween mngrof level, oiling nd feed technique, mixture spices supplementtion hd dditives. Generlly, egg weight ws considerly eneficil effect on the prmeter of egg weight which incresed y out 5.2% s incorporting spices 604

8 Tle 8: M.A. Al-Hrthi: Utiliztion of Treted Mngrof Leves Mel Weight (g) nd percentge oviduct, ovry, spleen nd liver s ffected y level of rw or oiled Mngrof mel in diets supplemented with Biogen or spices mixture during (20-28) wks of ge Mngrof Boiling Additive Orgns weithts level % Oviduct Oviduct Ovry Ovry Spleen Spleen Liver Liver (g) (%) (g) (%) (g) (%) (g) (g) Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Biogen Spices Biogen Spices Men Men effect of oiling tretment Men effect of feed dditives Biogen Spices SEM Mngrof level NS NS NS NS NS NS Boiling NS NS NS NS Feed dditives 0.04 NS NS NS Level x Boiling NS NS NS 0.03 NS NS Level x Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Level x Boiling x Additives NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS, Mens within column within the sme tretment ering different superscripts re significntly different. mixture to the experimentl diets contining 10% cooked mngrof leves mel nd y 4.61% s using 5%of the tested mteril plus Biogen supplementtion. Also, there ws significnt interction etween levels of mngrof mel nd either oiling process or feed dditives. Generlly, it my e concluded tht lying hens cn tolerte mngrof leves mel up to 5% without dversely ffecting the lyer performnce. Menwhile, neither oiling process nor studied feed dditives hd enhncing effect on most of the prmeters of lying hens performnce. However, Further reserch is still require to evluting the effect of feeding mngrofe leves mel with other dditions on hens performnce. References Ad-All, A.A., The utiliztion of guv y-products in roiler finisher diets. M. Sc. Thesis Fculty of Agriculture, Alexndri University. Ado Zein, M.A., A.Z.M. Solimn nd Olft S. Brkt, Effect of hot pepper nd Mjorm s feed dditives on the growth performnce nd the microil popultion of the gstrointestinl trct of roilers, Egypt. Poult. Sci., 22: Akr, M.A. nd P.C. Gupt, Proximte composition tnnin nd minerl contents of different cultivrs of vrious plnt prts of suul (leucen Leucocephl ). Ind. Anim. Sci., 55: Al-Hrthi, M.A., Efficcy of vegetle diets with ntiiotics nd different types of spices or their mixtures on performnce, economic efficiency nd crcss trits of roilers. J. Agri. Sci. Mnsour Univ., 27: Aki, Y. nd T. Mtsumoto, Effect of force-feeding nd dietry cellulose on liver lipid ccumultion nd lipid composition of liver nd plsm in growing chicks. J. Nutr., 108:

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