CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL ECOLOGY AND FORAGING BEHAVIOR... 1

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1 Table of Contents About the Authors... xii Acknowledgments... xiv CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL ECOLOGY AND FORAGING BEHAVIOR... 1 Introduction... 1 The Ecological Context... 1 Herbivore Adaptation and Foraging Habits... 2 Plant Characteristics that Influence Selection and Intake... 4 Physical Signals... 4 Chemical Signals... 5 Origins of Diet Selection... 7 Nature Versus Nurture... 7 Palatability, Preference, and Postingestive Consequences... 8 Feedback Mechanisms and Behavior... 9 Conditioned Taste Responses Dietary Social Facilitation and the Influence of Mom Familiar Versus Unfamiliar Foods and Foraging Locations Management Implications Never Keep Animals Guessing Never Work Animals Too Hard Always Provide Water Maintain Soil Fertility Summary CHAPTER 2: BASIC ANIMAL NUTRITION Introduction to Ruminant Digestion Nutritional Requirements Energy Caloric Density and Rate and Extent of Digestion Bottom Line Protein Crude Protein Determination Protein from Forages and Browse Protein Supplementation Ruminant Protein Utilization Minerals Calcium Phosphorus Potassium, Sodium, and Chloride iii

2 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ANIMAL NUTRITION (continued) Magnesium Sulfur Microminerals Vitamins Fat-Soluble Vitamins Water-Soluble Vitamins Water Drinking Water Water Contained in Forages and Feeds Water from Nutrient Metabolism Forage Intake Environmental Effects on Livestock Influencing Intake Environmental Effects on Plants Influencing Intake Changes in Nutrient Needs Over the Production Cycle Animal Class Influence of Animal Physiological State on Requirements Seasonality of Herbage Production Grasses Legumes Nontraditional Plants Ration Balancing Ration Balancing Process Nutritional Goals and Sources of Information Requirements Feed Composition Values Feed Formulas and Conversions Simple Balancing Trial and Error Pearson s Square Algebraic Method Modified Pearson s Square Modified Algebraic Equations Simultaneous Equations Algebraic Method for Formulating a Grain/Mineral/Vitamin Mix Micro-Math Pasture Allowance Example Summary CHAPTER 3: BEEF NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT Nutrition Requirements of the Herd Cows First-Calf Heifers iv

3 Yearlings Stockers Replacement Heifers Body Condition Score Scoring Influence of Body Condition on Reproduction Impact of BCS at Calving BCS Changes from Calving to Breeding Summary Dietary Energy and Changes in BCS Cattle Type and Management Breed and Cattle Type to Optimize Grazing Market Genetics Forage Intake Animal Maintenance Buying Yearling Bulls Using EPDs Nutritional Diseases of Grazing Cattle Bloat Grass Tetany Hardware Disease White Muscle Disease Foot Rot Johne s Disease Neospora spp Problems Related to the Ingestion of Legumes Problems Related to the Ingestion of Grasses Pasture Management Strategies to Optimize Production for Cow/Calf and Yearling Cattle Forage Quality and Availability Grazing Systems Fixed or Rigid Paddock Rotational Grazing Flexible Paddock Rotational Grazing Buffer Grazing Forward Grazing Creep Grazing Combination Systems Supplementation of Calves and Yearlings Production Goals Growth Rate Targets Nutritional Requirements Mineral Supplementation Creep Feeding Delivery Systems v

4 CHAPTER 3: BEEF NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Winter Feeding Strategies for Cows and Yearling Cattle Hay Corn Silage Extended Grazing CHAPTER 4: DAIRY NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT Nutrition Basics for Dairy Cattle Carbohydrates Energy Protein Dry Matter Intake Lactation Cycle of a Dairy Cow Quality of Intensively Managed Pastures Forage Testing Energy/Protein Relationships Nutrient Imbalances/Deficiencies in Pasture Pasture as the Only Forage and DMI Correcting Nutritional Limitations/Imbalances of Pasture Energy Economics of Supplemental Grain Feeding Energy Sources Fiber Fat Supplementation Protein Supplemental Forages and TMRs Advantages of Supplemental Forage Disadvantages of Supplemental Forage Supplementation with a ptmr Effects of Energy/Protein Relationships on Milk Production and Composition Milk Composition Milk Fatty Acids Conjugated Linoleic Acid Gradually Introduce Pasture in Spring Using Models to Predict Limiting Nutrients and Animal Performance with Pasture-Based Diets Using Pasture in Various Management Systems Reproduction in Pasture-Based Dairy Systems Dairy Reproductive Performance Has Declined Seasonal Calving Versus Year-Round Calving BCS and Reproduction Summer Heat Genetics of the Grazing Cow for Reproduction and Performance Artificial Insemination or Natural Service vi

5 Dry Cow Considerations Pasture for Replacement Heifers Managing the Feeding Program CHAPTER 5: SHEEP NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT Reproductive Biology and Its Influence on Production Ewe Nutrition Tables of Requirements Maintenance Flushing Early Gestation Late Gestation Lactation Ewe Lambs Monitoring Body Condition Forage Quality Nutrition of Growing Lambs Growth and Development Creep Feeding Finishing Market Lambs Development of Replacement Ewe and Ram Lambs Minerals and Vitamins for Sheep Macrominerals Microminerals Vitamins Mineral Intake Forms of Mineral Supplements Types of Mineral Supplements Lambs Fed a High-Grain Diet Summary Flock Health Considerations for Sheep Internal Parasites Coccidiosis Foot Rot Reproductive Diseases Metabolic Diseases Other Diseases Genetics and Selection Breeding Systems Crossbreeding Systems Breeds Ram Selection Ewe Selection vii

6 CHAPTER 5: SHEEP NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Production Records Predator Control Production Systems Early Winter Lambing System Late Winter Lambing System Spring Lambing System Fall Lambing System Wool Production and Marketing CHAPTER 6: GOAT NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT Nutrient Requirements Introduction Feeding Requirements Nutrients Required and Table of Nutritional Requirements Water Energy Protein Minerals Vitamins Factors Influencing Goat Nutritional Requirements Body Condition Scoring Introduction Description of Body Condition Scoring How to Determine Body Condition Using Body Condition Scores Flushing General Management Requirements Nutritional Management Nutrition of Newborn Kids Nutrition of Replacement Does Nutrition of Breeding Bucks Suggested Supplemental Feeding Program for Meat Goats Suggested Supplemental Feeding Program for Dairy Goats Common Nutritional Diseases Pregnancy Disease or Ketosis Urinary Calculi or Urinary Stones Grass Tetany Gastrointestinal Parasite Management Introduction Roundworms Drug Resistance FAMACHA viii

7 Coccidia Forages for Meat Goats Introduction Grazing Behavior and Grazing Time Grazing Management for Meat Goats Clearing Land with Meat Goats Mixed Grazing and Stocking Rates Animal Selection, Breeding, and Genetics Production Traits Introduction Adaptability Reproductive Rate Growth Rate Carcass Characteristics Conformation and General Appearance Breeding Introduction Breeding Season Heat Detection Estrous Cycles Puberty, Breeding, and Body Size Gestation Length Goat Genetics Introduction Boer Goat Spanish Goat Myotonic Goat Nubian Goat Alpine, Oberhasli, Saanen, and Toggenburg Goats LaMancha Goat Pygmy and Nigerian Dwarf Goats Kiko Goat CHAPTER 7: HORSE NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT Introduction Nutritional Requirements of Horses Body Condition Scoring Scoring Method Contribution of Pasture to the Feed Ration Pasture Yield and Pasture Season Length Pasture Forage Quality Horse Energy Demands Forage Intake Rate ix

8 CHAPTER 7: HORSE NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Pasture Carrying Capacity Pasture Management and Grazing Management A Balancing Act Pasture Management Forage Species Selection Fertilization and ph Clipping Manure Management/Dragging Weed Control Grazing Management Continuous Grazing Rotational Grazing Sacrifice Areas Fencing Water, Minerals, and Shelter Plant-Related Health Problems Tall Fescue/Endophytes Ryegrass/Staggers Alsike Clover/Photosensitivity Red Clover/Slobbers Sorghum/Prussic Acid Poisonous Plants Summary CHAPTER 8: PARASITE CONTROL: BASIC BIOLOGY AND CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR PASTURE-BASED SYSTEMS Introduction Internal Parasites Roundworms or Nematodes Basic Biology Drug Resistance Selective Treatment and Pasture Management Strategies Determining Worm Resistance to Dewormers Collecting and Handing Fecal Samples Special Considerations for Goats and Cattle Tapeworms Protozoa Coccidiosis Toxoplasmosis External Parasites Flies Heel Flies or Cattle Grubs Horn Flies x

9 Face Flies Miscellaneous Flies Lice Mites Ticks Responsible Drug Use Abbreviations Conversion Tables Glossary References About NRAES xi