3.5 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved Substances

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1 3.5 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved Substances Substances are sometimes absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires the use of energy from respiration. The process is called active transport. Active transport enables cells to absorb ions from very dilute solutions. Active transport allows cells to move substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. This movement is against a concentration gradient. This enables to cells to move sugars and ions from one place to another through the cell membrane. In the cell membrane are transport proteins or systems. The substrate molecule binds to the transport protein. The transport protein moves across the membrane carrying the substrate to the other side. The substrate is released and the transport protein returns to its original position. This processes uses energy from cellular respiration in the mitochondria. The rate of active transport depends upon the rate of respiration. The higher the rate of respiration the higher the rate of active transport. The importance of Active Transport: In plants: Plants need to move mineral ions from the soil into their roots. Mineral ions are much more concentrated in the cytoplasm of plant cells than in soil water (dilute), so they have to be moved against a concentration gradient. This involves active transport and the use of energy from cellular respiration. Sugars: Glucose is always actively absorbed out of the gut and kidney tubles into the blood.

2 3.5 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved Substances Osmosis The net movement of water from an area of high concentration of water (dilute) to an area of low concentration of water (concentrated) - ALONG a concentration gradient through a partially permeable membrane. In cells the cytoplasm is made up of chemicals dissolved in water. The cytoplasm contains a fairly concentrated solution of salts and sugars. Water will move from outside the cell into the cell. Remember: Diffusion refers to any particles Osmosis - refers to water Differences in the concentration of solutions inside and outside of a cell cause water to move into or out of the cell by osmosis. A partially permeable membrane allows small, soluble molecules like water to pass through it freely - but prevents larger molecules from doing so. In a cell, the cell membrane acts as a partially permeable membrane. Osmosis in Animal Cells Osmosis in Plant Cells If a cell has a more dilute solution inside it than outside it, then the overall movement of water is out of the cell. cell has a more concentrated solution inside it than outside it, then the overall movement of water is into the cell If a cell has a more dilute solution inside it than outside it, then the overall movement of water is out of the cell. cell has a more concentrated solution inside it than outside it, then the overall movement of water is into the cell Animal Cells Shrink and shrivel Any large movement of water into animal cells causes it to burst In plant cells this would cause the membrane and cytoplasm to shrink away from the cell wall, causing the plant cell to become flaccid (limp). In plant cells this causes the cell to begin to swell, and the cytoplasm and membrane push against the cell wall. The strong cell wall then resists further expansion, supporting the cell which becomes turgid (fully inflated).

3 3.5 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved Substances Water will move from outside the cell into the cell Water will move from inside the cell to outside the cell Hypertonic - higher solute concentration compared with another. For example, if the extracellular fluid has greater amounts of solutes than the cytoplasm, the extracellular fluid is said to be hypertonic. Osmosis in Animal Cells Hypotonic - a solution with a comparatively lower concentration of solutes compared to another Water often moves across boundaries by osmosis. Osmosis if the diffusion of water from a dilute to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane that allows the passage of water molecules. Osmosis in Plant Cells

4 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved substances The villi in the small intestine provide a large surface area with an extensive network of blood capillaries. This makes the villi well adapted to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport. It is important that the villi has a rich blood supply to absorb and carry dissolved food molecules to the cells of the body to be used during respiration and to maintain a concentration gradient. The Villi is a tiny projection of the lining of the small intestine which increase the surface area for the absorption of digested products. The villi provide a large surface area with an extensive network of capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport. Each villus is covered in many microscopic microvilli. This increases the surface area available for diffusion even more. Glucose is moved from the small intestine into the blood by active transport. The digested food molecules have to move against the concentration gradient. This makes sure that none of the digested food is wasted and lost as faeces. In the wall of the intestine are the villi. The villi make it possible for digested food to be transferred from the intestine into the blood by diffusion or active transport. Villi are adapted for the maximum absorption of digested food molecules because: 1. the folded villi greatly increase the surface area of the intestine 2. the villi are made of a single layer of thin cells (one cell thick) so there is a short diffusion path 3. beneath the villi is an extensive blood capillary network to distribute the absorbed food molecules. A rich blood supply produces a steep concentration gradient for diffusion.

5 3.5 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.1 Dissolved Substances A sports drink contain: 1. Water 2. Sugar glucose 3. Mineral ions 4. Colourings and flavourings While you exercise, sugars (glucose) is used by the mitochondria of your cells in a process called respiration, to release energy. The water and mineral ions lost by sweating during exercise need to be replaced to avoid dehydration. If the sugars, water and mineral ions are not replaced, the mineral ion/water balance of your body is disturbed and your body will not function effectively. Sports drink aid hydration of the tissues, help replace used sugar, lost water and electrolytes the mineral ions lost via sweating. Sports drinks contain lots of water, so they dilute the body fluids. This allows water to move back into the cells and rehydrate them by osmosis. Sports drinks contain salt, which raise ions levels, so ions move back into cells by diffusion. They raise the blood sugar levels so sugar move back into cells by diffusion and active transport. Sports drinks manufacturers often make claims about the performance benefits of using their branded sports drinks, but it is important that these claims are evaluated based on valid data from controlled trials of a large sample of athletes. Different manufacturers put slightly different amounts of sugar and mineral ions in their sports drinks, and therefore each brand will potentially have differing effects on an athlete s performance. Evidence suggests that for normal levels of exercise water is at least as effective as a sports drink. Water, orange squash and salt will replace the most of the important mineral ions.

6 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.2 Gaseous Exchange The effectiveness of an exchange surface can be increased by: 1. Having a large surface area 2. Being thin, which provides a short diffusion path 3. Having an efficient blood supply in animals. This moves the diffusing substances away and maintains a concentration (diffusion) gradient. 4. Being ventilated, in animals, to make gaseous exchange more efficient by maintaining steep concentration gradients. The Lungs adapted to make gas exchange more efficient. The lungs are made up of alveoli. Alveoli are tiny air sacs, which give the lungs a very large surface area with a good blood supply and short diffusion distances. The lungs are ventilated to maintain steep diffusion gradients. The capillaries are very thin this allows diffusion to take place over short distances. The membrane are kept moist to allow the gases to dissolve and pass through the membranes. Ventilation moves air in and out and maintains a steep diffusion gradient. Blood Supply maintains concentration gradient for diffusion. Spherical shape of the alveolus gives a large surface area for diffusion. Thin alveolus walls provide a short diffusion path

7 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.2 Gaseous Exchange Lungs are located in the thorax and protected by the ribcage. The abdomen is separated by the diaphragm. The digestive organs are located beneath your diaphragm in the abdomen. The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that oxygen from the air can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air. When you inhale: the intercostal muscles contract, expanding the ribcage. the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards to increase the volume of the chest. pressure inside the chest is lowered and air is sucked into the lungs. Atmospheric air at high pressure than the chest causes air to be drawn into the lungs When you exhale: the intercostal muscles relax, the ribcage drops inwards and downwards the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards, decreasing the volume of the chest. pressure inside the chest increases and air is forced out. Pressure in the chest higher than outside so air is forced out of the lungs.

8 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.2 Gaseous Exchange A person might struggle to breath for the following reasons: 1. The tubes leading to the lungs may be narrow so less air gets through them. 2. The structure of the alveoli can break down. This results in alveoli which have a smaller surface area for gas exchange. 3. Some people are paralysed in an accident or by disease so they can not breathe. Two main ways: Negative Pressure and Positive Pressure for supporting or taking over breathing, to save lives. Negative Pressure: Iron Lung An external negative pressure ventilator patients whole body is put into a machine. The patient is placed in an airtight machine from the neck down, and a vacuum is created around the thorax. This creates a negative pressure, which leads to the expansion of the thorax and a decrease in pressure. As a result, air is drawn into the lungs. As the vacuum is released, the elasticity of the lungs, diaphragm and chest wall cause exhalation. Positive Pressure: Air is forced into the lungs through a tube which is inserted into the trachea. As the ventilator pumps air in, the lungs inflate. When the ventilator stops, the elasticity of the lungs, diaphragm and chest wall cause exhalation. Can be using a simple face mask or a tube going into the trachea. Patients do not have to be placed into a machine. The equipment can be used at home. The patient can move about. Patient has control over the machine. Computer systems can be linked to help monitor the patients breathing. Advantages Disadvantage Negative Pressure (Developed and used from the 1920s to treat polio sufferers) Positive Pressure (Used extensively since the 1950s) Effective at treating many polio patients over the years Useful during operations, where surgeons need access to the body Effective at ventilating the lungs Patient is confined to the machine The vacuum on full-body machines can affect the abdomen, leading to the pooling of blood in lower parts of the body Long-term ventilation requires the tube to be surgically inserted into the trachea through the neck

9 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.3 Exchange Systems in Plants 1. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf cells by diffusion through stomata. 2. Water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cells 3. Carbon dioxide and Water is used during photosynthesis 4. Root hair cells increase the surface area of the roots and the flattened shape and internal air spaces increase the surface of the leaves. 5. The flattened shape of the leaves increase the surface are for diffusion as the diffusion path is kept short. The internal air spaces allow carbon dioxide to come into contact with lots of cells giving it a large surface area. 6. Osmosis is used to take water from the soil 7. Active transport is used to obtain ions from the soil. 8. Leaves are adapted to allow carbon dioxide in only when it is needed. They are covered with a waxy cutilce. Which is a waterproof and gas proof layer. 1. The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the surface area of leaves is increased by the flattened shape and internal air spaces. 2. Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and to remove oxygen produced in photosynthesis. 3. Plants mainly lose water vapour from their leaves. Most of the loss of water vapour takes place through the stomata. 4. The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells, which surround them. When it is dark photosynthesis will not occur. Therefore carbon dioxide is not required. The carbon dioxide produced by respiration is available for the plant to use. Only on a bright, sunny days a lot of carbon dioxide needs to come into the leaves by diffusion. The guard cells open and close the stomata depending upon the amount of potassium ions present in the fluid in the cell. The more potassium ions that are present, the more the cells become turgid (swollen) and the bigger the opening. The size of the opening is used by the plant to control the rate of transpiration and therefore limit the levels of moisture in the leaf which prevents it from wilting. Stomata (stoma) can be opened when the plant needs to allow carbon dioxide into the leaves. Oxygen produced by photosynthesis is able to leave the plant by diffusion. The opening and closing of the stoma are controlled by guard cells (eg they close the stomata to prevent wilting). Water is lost from the leaves by diffusion when the stoma are opened.

10 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.3 Exchange Systems in Plants Roots absorb water from the soil by osmosis and dissolve mineral ions from the soil by active transport. Plant roots are thin, divided structures with a large surface area. The cells on the outside of the roots near the growing tips also have extensions, called root hairs, which increase the surface area for the uptake of substances from the soil. These tiny projections from the cells push out between the soil particles. The membranes of the root hair cells also have microvilli that increase the surface area for diffusion and osmosis even more. The water then has only a short distance to move across the root to the xylem, where it is moved up and around the plant. The mineral ions are transported around the plant where they serve a variety of functions, whilst the water is transported to be used as a reactant in photosynthesis, as well as to cool the leaves by evaporation and support the leaves and shoots by keeping cells rigid. To maximise the efficiency of absorption, roots have specialised cells called root hair cells which are found just behind the tip of the root. Root hair cells have several adaptations: 1. the tube-like protrusion provides a greater surface area across which water and mineral ions can be exchanged 2. the tube-like protrusion can penetrate between soil particles, reducing the distance across which water and mineral ions must move 3. the root hair cell contains lots of mitochondria, which release energy from glucose during respiration in order to provide the energy needed for active transport Root Root Hairs - increase the surface area for the uptake of substances from the soil. The membranes of the root hair cells also have microvilli that increase the surface area for diffusion and osmosis even more.

11 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.3 Exchange Systems in Plants Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the surface of plant leaves through the stomata. Water evaporates from the surface of the leaves, through the open stomata. As this water evaporates, water is pulled up through the xylem to take its place. This constant moving of water through the xylem from the roots to the leaves is known as the transpiration stream. Water moves into the roots from the soil by osmosis. It replaces the water constantly moving up the stem. Water moves up from the roots into the stem. Water moves up through the stem and into he leaves to replace the water lost by evaporation. Water is lost from the leaves by evaporation through open stomata. When the stomata are open more carbon dioxide enters the leaf. This increases the rate of photosynthesis. In turn, this also increases the rate of transpiration, as more water is lost by evaporation through the open stomata. So factors which increase the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of evaporation also increased the rate of transpiration. The factors include: Warm, Sunny, Hot, Dry and Windy Conditions Controlling water loss: 1. Cuticle Waterproof Waxy Layer prevent uncontrolled water loss. 2. Stomata found on the underside of the leaves. This protects them from direct sunlight and reduces the time they are open. Stomata close, which stops photosynthesis and risks overheating. 3. Wilting When a plant begins to lose water faster than it is being replaced by the roots. The leaves collapse and hang down. The surface area available for water loss by evaporation is greatly reduced. The plant will remain wilted until the Sun goes in or it rains.

12 Unit 3: Biology 3 B3.1.3 Exchange Systems in Plants Terms to Learn Diffusion - the net movement of particles of a gas or a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration ALONG a concentration gradient. Through a partially permeable membrane. Osmosis The net movement of water from an area of high concentration of water (dilute) to an area of low concentration of water (concentrated) - ALONG a concentration gradient. Through a partially permeable membrane Active Transport - the movement of substances AGAINST a concentration gradient and /or across a cell membrane, using energy. Partially permeable membrane - allowing only certain substances to pass through Transpiration The loss of water vapour from the leaves of plants through stomata when they are open to allow gas exchange for photosynthesis. Transpiration Stream The movement of water through a plant from the roots to the leaves as a result of loss of water by evaporation from the surface of the leaves.

13 AQA B3 Topic 3 Homeostasis

14 Removal of waste & water control (osmoregulation) Key words: Excretion the removal of waste products from the body eg. carbon dioxide & urea Homeostasis the maintaining of a constant internal environment Internal conditions have to be kept within a narrow range of values so the cells can function properly. This is homeostasis. Examples of homeostasis: removal of waste products water & ion concentration body temperature (thermoregulation) blood glucose levels Waste products have to be removed from the body so levels do not become toxic. Waste product Why is it produced? How is it removed? Carbon dioxide Urea Produced through aerobic respiration Produced in the liver when excess amino acids are broken down Through the lungs when we breathe out (exhale) The kidneys remove it from the blood and make urine which is temporarily stored in the bladder What happens if the water or ion content is wrong? Too much water may & leave the cells damaging them. Ions are lost from the body via - sweating & urine Ions are gained via eating & drinking

15 Key words: Water control the kidney Urea produced from the breakdown of amino acids toxic Urine mixture of water, excess ions and urea created in the kidney & stored in the bladder Selective reabsorption when the kidney takes back different amounts of water and ions into the blood depending on the bodys demand for them A healthy kidney produces urine by: Water is lost from the body via Exhaling Sweating Urine Water is gained via Drinking Eating 1. Filtering the blood glucose, amino acids, mineral ions, urea & water move from the blood to kidney tubles by diffusion. Proteins & red blood cells are too large to be filtered out the blood. 2. Reabsorbtion- all the sugar via active transport 3. Selective reabsorbtion - the dissolved ions needed by the body via active transport 4. Selective reabsorbtion - as much water as the body needs is selectively reabsorbed by osmosis 5. Releasing urea, excess ions and water as urine Little drunk & hot day = little dark yellow, concentrated urine Lots drunk & cool day = lots of dilute, almost colourless urine.

16 Kidney failure - dialysis If a persons kidney stops working properly there are 2 options: 1) Dialysis 2) Kidney transplant Dialysis Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals. Advantages Available to all kidney patients (no shortage) No need for immune-suppressant drugs In a dialysis machine a person s blood flows between partially permeable membranes. The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood. This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost. Urea passes out from the blood into the dialysis fluid. Disadvantages Patient must limit their salt and protein intake between dialysis sessions Expensive for the NHS Regular dialysis sessions (8hrs) impacts on the patient s lifestyle

17 Kidney failure kidney transplant Key words: Antigen proteins on the surface of cells which identify a cell as self or foreign to the body Antibody - protein used in the immune response to fight off foreign cells Kidney transplant A diseases kidney is replaced by a healthy donor kidney. Organ rejection is a problem as the antigens on the surface of the donor kidney are recognised by the immune system as foreign and can be attacked by the patients antibodies To reduce the chances of this happening 2 precautions are taken: 1) Immune-suppressant drugs are give 2) A donor kidney with a similar tissue type is used Advantages Patients can lead a more normal life without having to watch what they eat and drink Cheaper for the NHS overall Disadvantages Must take immune-suppressant drugs which increase the risk of infection Shortage of organ donors Kidney only lasts 8-9 years on average Any operation carries risks

18 Temperature control - thermoregulation Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. This centre has receptors which are sensitive to the temperature of the blood. Receptors in the skin also send impulses to the thermoregulatory centre about the skin temperature. Consequences of your core body temperature raising too high: Enzymes are denatured so can no longer catalyse reactions in your cells. Consequences of your core body temperature dropping too low: Enzyme reaction rate is slowed. Not enough energy is released & cells begin to die

19 Temperature control - thermoregulation Responses to decreased body temperature: Increased body temperature Responses to increased body temperature: 1. Vasoconstriction - narrowing of blood vessels in the skin. Blood flow through the skin is reduced, therefore heat loss is decreased. Body temperature increases. 2. Shivering - tiny muscles under the skin contracting and relaxing very quickly. The muscle cells release heat. 3. Body hair rises away from the skin, trapping a layer of air next to it, insulating the body. Erector muscles contracting. Decreased body temperature 1. Vasodilatation - widening of blood vessels. Blood flow is increased and more heat is lost through the skin. Nerve impulses pass along the nerves from the thermoregulatory centre to the muscles in the walls of blood cells, stimulating contraction and causing them to narrow. When the muscles relax the blood vessels widen. 2. Sweat is produced. Heat from the body evaporates the water in sweat. when it is hot more water is lost so more has to be taken in. 3. Body hair lies flat against the skin, preventing air becoming trapped next to it.

20 Blood glucose control Blood glucose concentration is controlled by the release of hormones from the pancreas Insulin Hormone released from the pancreas when blood glucose levels have increased. Allows glucose to move from the blood to the cells where it is used or stored as glycogen in the liver. Glycogen Hormone released from the pancreas when blood glucose levels fall. Causes glycogen stored in the liver to be converted into glucose and released into the blood

21 Problems with blood glucose control - diabetes Diabetes is a disease where a persons blood glucose concentrations are not controlled properly because of either a lack of insulin (type 1) or cells not responding to insulin (type 2) Type 1 Diabetes 1. Pancreas does NOT produce any or enough insulin 2. Inject insulin daily (into the fat layer beneath the skin) traditionally this was from pigs, but now we use genetically engineered human insulin as it is more effective. 3. Exercise and diet are used to help lower blood glucose levels too Type 2 Diabetes 1. Cells respond less well to insulin (they become resistant) 2. Risk factors of developing it are: 1. High-fat diets 2. Lack of exercise 3. Getting older 4. Obesity 3. Control by changes in diet and exercise eg. - eating a balanced diet with fewer carbohydrates - Losing weight - Regular exercise

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