Random dot stereogram E in vision screening of children
|
|
- Randolph Houston
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Original Article Random dot stereogram E in vision screening of children Carolyn Hope, FRACO Department of Ophthalmology, Auckland Public Hospital Keith Maslin, FRACO Department of Ophthalmology, Auckland Public Hospital Abstract The random dot stereogram E (RDE) has been shown to be a simple and effective test for the detection of binocular abnormalities and defective visual acuity in ~hi1dren.l.~ We determined the validity of the RDE as a screening test for reduced visual acuity, amblyopia and strabismus in two separate populations of children. A nonselective group of 100 school children (aged 5 to 15 years) who presented consecutively to the ophthalmology department at Auckland Public Hospital were tested with the RDE. All cases of amblyopia and strabismus were detected by the RDE. Similar screening with the RDE test of 168 preschool children (aged three to four years) in the community resulted in an unacceptably high overreferral rate. The test was unreliable in the preschool age group because of difficulty in distinguishing between test failure and non-cooperation with the test. The low positive predictive value of the test in the younger age group suggests the test to be unsuitable for preschool vision screening. Key words: Random dot stereogram, vision screening. Amblyopia remains an important cause of vision loss in the paediatric community. The reported prevalence varies owing to differences in populations studied and visual acuity criteria adopted. Amongst preschool and school-age children figures range between 1.3 and 3.5?k5 Early detection and correction of ocular defects may prevent permanent visual disability from amblyopia, and allow for the development of an optimal binocular function.6-8 The benefits of preschool screening are less well do~umented.~ At present detection of amblyopia is dependant largely upon the subjective measurement of visual acuity at three to four years when cooperation is possible. In New Zealand, preschool screening of amblyopia is primarily carried out by paediatric community health nurses (Plunket nurses), who test visual acuity using the four-metre letter matching test (LMT) without confusion bars,'o and binocular function using the Hirschberg corneal reflex test and cover test. Single optotypes, easier to use in this age group, are inappropriate for amblyopia detection since children may pass at an artificially high level. This defect of isolated symbols may be overcome by surrounding the letter with adjacent black bars or other letters in order to activate the crowding effect.'o." The Hirschberg corneal reflex test and cover test are difficult to perform and may be unreliably interpreted in the young child. Visual acuity tests alone will fail to detect certain binocular anomalies such as alternating strabismus, high phorias, and hypermetropia. Instead, a stereotest, the random dot E (RDE) has been advocated as a screening test for identification of both reduced visual acuity and binocular anomalies.'-4.'2 Unlike other stereotests the RDE provides no monocular cues, and only when binocularly fused can the stereoscopic figure be seen.' Originally the RDE was used to detect amblyopia,' but recently it has Reprint requests: Carolyn Hope, Department of Ophthalmology, Auckland Public Hospital, Grafton Road, Auckland, New Zealand. Random dot stereogram E in vision screening of children 31 9
2 been proposed as an effective test in vision screening of ~hildren.~~~~ In one study of school-age children the RDE test was found to be more effective than other screening techniques. These encouraging reports prompted us to evaluate the RDE as a screening test for visual defects in two different populations of children - school children referred to the hospital ophthalmology department, and preschool children tested in the community. Patients and methods Group 1 Group 1 consisted of 100 school children (aged five to 15 years) who presented consecutively with vision problems to the ophthalmology department at Auckland Public Hospital between March and June Each child was initially tested with the RDE at a distance of one and two metres by an independent examiner. The child then underwent a complete ophthalmic examination including Snellen acuity, binocular function, refraction and fundus examination. The RDE was carried out according to the test procedure and pass or fail was recorded for the one metre and two metre test distance. Refraction was carried out under cycloplegia in all children under seven years of age, and in older children where distance fixation was unreliable or where hypermetropia of greater than three dioptres was found with the initial retinoscopy. For cycloplegia one drop of 1% cyclopentolate was used in each eye and this was repeated after five minutes. Retinoscopy was performed after a minimum period of 40 minutes. Refraction was recorded as cycloplegic refraction less 0.50 dioptres. Children who were found to have a visual acuity of 6/12 vision or less in either eye, or a manifest strabismus were recorded as positive referrals. The validity of the RDE as a screening test was then calculated for both the one and two metre test distances. We also evaluated the RDE in screening cases of amblyopia, manifest strabismus, anisometropia, and astigmatism. Amblyopia was defined in this study as a difference of two or more lines in Snellen acuity between eyes with correction, and prior to occlusion. Anisometropia was taken to be 1.50 dioptres or more difference between the corresponding axes of the two eyes. Group 2 Group 2 consisted of 168 preschool children (aged three to four years) who attended for comprehensive Table 1. Detection of ocular abnormalities by RDE at one metre in school children. Results of RDE (1 m) Reduced VA andlor manifest strabismus Present Absent Total Positive (fail) Negative (pass) Total Sensitivity of RDE at 1 m=33/62 (53%); Specificity of RDE at I m = 35/38 (92%); Positive predictive value = 33/36 (92%); Negative predictive value = 35/64 (55%). health checks, including vision screening, conducted by Plunket nurses. In addition to vision screening tests routinely performed by the Plunket nurses, they also tested children with the RDE at a one and two metre test distance. We had originally planned to examine all children who failed the RDE at the two metre test distance. However, since almost half the children failed at this test distance the criterion for pass or fail was made on the basis of the one metre test distance. The following tests were administered to all preschool children. (Group 2) 1. Visual acuity - four-metre letter matching test (single optotype without confusion bars). O Criteria for referral: 4/8 or less in either eye. or Allen picture cardst3 - six picture cards were presented to each eye at four metres. Criteria for referral: Those children who failed to correctly identify the pictures at four metres (equivalent to 6/15), or a shorter test distance with either eye. 2. Near cover test - All tropias were referred. 3. RDE - Criterion for referral: Failure to correctly identify the E at one metre at k st four times in succession. Table 2. Detection of ocular abnormalities by RDE at two metres in school children Results of RDE (2 m) Reduced VA andlor manifest strabismus Present Absent Total Positive (failure) Negative (pass) Total Sensitivity of RDE at 2 m=53/62 (85%); Specificity of RDE at 2 m = 20/38 (53%); Positive predictive value = 53/71 (75%); Negative predictive value = 20/29 (69%). 320 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology 1990; 18(3)
3 All children who failed one or more of the tests underwent a complete ophthalmic examination, which included a repeat visual acuity using the fourmetre LMT without confusion bars, or Kaye picture cards,i4 if not cooperative with the letter matching test. Other tests included the RDE, binocular function, refraction, and fundus examination. Those children with visual acuity of less than 4/4 with the LMT, or less than 6/6 with the Kaye picture cards in either eye underwent cycloplegic refraction as described for group 1 children. Children confirmed to have visual acuities of 6/12 or less in either eye or a manifest strabismus were considered positive referrals. The sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of the RDE were then calculated in this group of children. Description of Random dot stereogram E The RDE test comprises two random dot vectographic stereograms, a pair of polarised glasses, and a demonstration model consisting of thick card printed to simulate a random dot pattern with a raised embossed E in the centre (see Figures 1, 2). One of the stereograms when viewed through the polarised glasses reveals a raised figure E similar to the demonstration model. The other appears blank with only a random series of dots visible. The RDE is calibrated such that when viewed at 28 cm the disparity is 900 arc seconds. By moving the test card farther away the disparity is reduced. At one metre the disparity is 252 arc seconds, and at 2 metres the disparity is 126 arc seconds. These thresholds are probably underestimates of actual threshold since moving the test target farther away reduces the visual angle of the test target, therefore the target is harder to see because of nonstereoscopic reasons as well as because of reduced disparity. Stereonorms for three to five year olds are estimated to be 126 arc Results of the test are recorded as pass or fail. A pass requires the E to be correctly identified at least four times in succession. Fig. 1.- The random dot stereogram E test consists of two random dot vectographic stereograms, one containing the stereographic E, a demonstration model showing an embossed E, and a pair of polarised glasses. passed, 35 had a normal ophthalmic examination. However, 29 children passed despite reduced acuities (see Table 1). The sensitivity of the RDE at one metre was calculated to be 5370, and the specificity to be 92%, with a positive predictive value of 9270, and a negative predictive value of 55%. Results at two metres. At two metres, 71 failed (test positive), and 29 passed (test negative). Of the children who failed the test 53 were found to have ocular abnormalities (true positives), while 20 who passed had a normal ophthalmic examination (true negatives), (see Table 2). The sensitivity of the RDE was calculated to be 8570, and the specificity to be 5370, with a positive predictive value of 75%, and a negative predictive value of 69%. We reviewed those children who passed the RDE despite reduced visual acuity (false negatives). Of Results Results of RDE in Group 1, school children A total of 100 children were screened and the RDE test was evaluated at one and two metres. Results at one metre. At one metre 36 children failed the RDE (test positive), and 64 passed (test negative). Of the children who failed, the test 33 had ocular abnormalities and of the children who Random dot stereogram E in vision screening of children Fig. 2.- Reverse sides of stereograms and demonstration model. 32 1
4 Table 3. Vision test results in selected Group 1, school children Number Uncorrected VA RDE (2 m) Refraction Corrected VA R L / R L pass Plano D fail Plano pass Plano fail X 30 Plano X 30 the nine children who passed the RDE at two metres (see Table 2), eight were myopic (< 1.50 dioptres), and one child was hypermetropic. At one metre the test was less specific. Of the 29 children who passed (see Table l), 26 had myopia or myopic astigmatism with a maximum of 2.00 dioptres and 2.50 dioptres. In addition, three children were hypermetropic with a maximum error of 4.00 dioptres. The corrected acuities in all 38 children considered false negatives were 619 or better in each eye. The RDE test detected all school-aged children with amblyopia (14 children) and manifest strabismus (nine children) at both 1 and 2 metres. There were 27 children with anisometropia. Of the 18 children with anisohypermetropia, one child passed at two metres (Table 3, no 1) and two children at one metre, (Table 3, no 1 and no 2). It was interesting to note that 14 of the remaining 15 children were amblyopic. Of the nine children with anisomyopia, one child passed at two metres (Table 3, no 3) and one passed at one metre (Table 3, no 4). The RDE detected all children with greater than 2.50 dioptres of astigmatism. Results of RDE in Group 2, preschool children A total of 168 children were screened with the RDE (see Table 4). Eight children were uncooperative to all screening tests and have not been included Table 4. Detection of vision defects in Group 2, preschool children Result of RDE Vision defect Present Absent Total Positive Negative Total Sensitivity = 8/9 (89%); Specificity = (75%); Positive predictive value =8/47 (17%); Negative predictive value = 120/121 (99%). in the study. Of the 168 children tested, 47 failed the RDE at one metre (test positive). Of these, seven children were found to have reduced visual acuities due to refractive errors, and one child had strabismus (see Table 5). Thirty-nine children had a normal ophthalmic examination. One child passed the RDE test despite defective acuity (see Table 5, no 8). Corrected acuity in the left eye using the LMT with and without confusion bars was 4/20 and 4/12 respectively. With correction, stereoacuity with the Frisby stereo platesi6 was 340 secs, and with the RDE 252 secs. The sensitivity of the test was calculated to be 8870, specificity to be 75%, positive predictive value to be 1770, and negative predictive value to be 99%. Discussion This study confirms the RDE to be a simple and quick test requiring no verbal response. In school-aged children the test is well understood and reliably detects children with amblyopia, strabismus, and amblyopiogenic conditions such as significant hypermetropia, anisometropia and astigmatism. The RDE is highly sensitive at the two metre test distance but less specific with more children failing the test despite a normal ophthalmic examination. All children with emmetropia passed the test at both test distances, however a significant number of children also passed the test despite reduced acuities. The majority of these children had low myopia. This suggests screening with the RDE in isolation would be inadequate. The RDE test was unreliable in preschool children and many children failed the test who were normal by other criteria. This high false-negative rate was due in part to a numer of children who failed to understand the instructions given with the test. Ingram also found the test was unreliable in testing preschool children and concluded a significant number of the children either would not attempt the test or obviously guessed. In our study 322 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology 1990; 18(3)
5 Table 5. Examination of positive referrals from preschool screening Case RDE (1 m) Visual acuity Refraction R L R L Management 4/20 4/ /18 4/20 4/12 6/24 4/ x /+ 1.00~ D.S OO X X 45 P X 90 PI/+ 1.00~ D.S l.0ox 180 P X x D.S ~ X 180 P11-1.OO X X D.S /+ 1.75~ 180 Follow-up FOIIOW-UP Exotropia G 1 asses Glasses Follow-up Glasses Glasses FOIIOW-UP we also found it was difficult to make the distinction between a child failing the test, guessing or misunderstanding the test requirements. Many parents felt their children performed poorly with the RDE because the test was given in distracting and noisy surroundings, however on retesting at the ophthalmology department with only the parent, child and tester present, the majority of children still failed this test despite a completely normal ophthalmic examination. We therefore believe the primary reason for our high overreferral rates was the specific three to four year old age group of children screened, and the recognised difficulty in obtaining reliable results in testing of this age group. In Reinecke and Simons original study, 87% of the 191 children were older than four years.' However, Simons, who compared different stereotests in 179 three to five year olds surprisingly showed only a 1% over-referral rate for RDE, with rescreening apparently eliminating all over-referrals. l2 One preschool child in our study passed the RDE with ease at one metre despite apparent amblyopia. In Reinecke and Simons' original study,' no patient with more than two lines difference in visual acuity between eyes, or less than 6/12 in the worse eye with correction, passed the RDE at one metre. There has been much debate over recent years concerning the justification for instituting widescale preschool vision screening programme^.'^,'^ Children with cosmetically obvious squints are usually detected at an earlier age. At presert screening for visual defects depends upon subjective tests at an age when cooperation is not always possible, and the search for a simple and effective test for vision screening continues. The RDE, proposed as a most promising test,20 in our study proved not only too unreliable in the preschool age group, but also failed to detect a child with amblyopia. It is likely that other screening tests will Random dot stereogram E in vision screening of children need to be devised which meet the requirements of early detection, minimal cooperation, speed and simplicity, yet high sensitivity and specificity. Photorefraction may be a realistic alternative Conclusions The RDE in screening of school-aged children will reliably detect amblyopia and strabismus, but alone fails to identify other visual defects including myopia. In preschool children the test proves too unreliable and results in large numbers of falsepositive referrals. The random dot stereogram E is unsuitable for screening of preschool children owing to the unreliable responses in this particular age group and not because of the inadequacy of the test itself in detecting significant visual problems. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Auckland Plunket Society and the Orthoptic department for their help with this study. References 1. Reinecke RD, Simons K. A new stereoscopic test for amblyopia screening. Am J Ophthalmol 1974;78: Hammond RS, Schmidt P. A Random Dot E stereotest for the vision screening of children. Arch Ophthalmol 1986; 104~ Rosner J. The effectiveness of the Random Dot E as a preschool vision screening instrument. J Am Optom Assoc 1978;40: Ruttum MS, Bence SM, Alcorn D. Stereopsis testing in a preschool vision screening program. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1986;23: Von-Noorden GK. Burian von-noorden's binocular vision and ocular motility. 3rd ed. St Louis: C V Mosby, 1985; Jastrzebsk GB, Hoyt CS, Marg E. Stimulus deprivation amblyopia in children. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102: Atkinson J, Braddick 0, Wattam-Bell J, er a/. Photorefractive screening of infants and effects of refractive correction. Invest Ophthal Vis Sci (suppl) 1987;28(3):
6 8. Parks MM. Single binocular vision. In: Duane TD, ed. Clinical Ophthalmology vol 1, Philadelphia: J B Lippincott Co., 1988; Feldman W, Milner RA, Sackett B, Gilbert S. Effects of preschool screening for vision and hearing on prevalence of vision and hearing problems 6-12 months later. Lancet 1980;2: I Parr JC. Clinical Assessment of visual acuity. Trans Ophthal SOC NZ 1981;33: Atkinson J, Anker S, Evans C, McIntyre A. The Cambridge crowding cards for preschool visual acuity testing. In: Lenk- Schafer M, ed. Transactions of the Sixth International Congress, 1987: Simons KA. Comparison of the Frisby, Random Dot E, T.N.O., and Randot Circles stereotests in screening and ofice use. Arch Ophthalmol 1981;99: Allen HF. A new picture series for preschool vision testing. Am J Ophthalmol 1957;44: Kaye H. New method ofassessing visual acuity with pictures. Br J Ophthalmol 1983;67: Simons K. Stereoacuity norms in young children. Arch Ophthalmol 1981 ;99: Hinchliffe HA. Clinical evaluation of stereopsis. Br J Orthoptics 1978;35: Ingram RM, Holland??, Walker C, er a/. Screening for visual defects in preschool children. Br J Ophthalmol 1986;70: Stewart Brown SL, Haslum MN, Howlett B. Preschool vision screening: a service in need of rationalisation. Arch Dis Child 1988;63: Ingram RM. Should preschool children be screened for visual defects? Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 1985;104: Ehrlich MI, Reinecke RD, Simons K. Preschool vision screening for amblyopia and strabismus: Programs, methods, guidelines. Surv Ophthalmol 1983;28: Atkinson J, Braddick OJ, Durden K, Watson PG, Atkinson S. Screening for refractive errors in 6-9 month infants by photorefraction. Br J Ophthalmol 1984; 68: Kaakinen KA, Kaseva HO, Teir HH. Two-flash photorefraction in screening of amblyogenic refractive errors. Ophthalmology 1987;94: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology 1990; 18(3)
Factors Influencing the Prevalence of Amblyopia in Children with Anisometropia
pissn: 1011-8942 eissn: 2092-9382 Korean J Ophthalmol 2010;24(4):225-229 DOI: 10.3341/kjo.2010.24.4.225 Factors Influencing the Prevalence of Amblyopia in Children with Anisometropia Original Article Chong
More informationTHE OUTCOME OF STRABISMUS SURGERY IN CHILDHOOD EXOTROPIA
THE OUTCOME OF STRABISMUS SURGERY IN CHILDHOOD EXOTROPIA J. M. KEENAN and H. E. WILLSHAW Birmingham SUMMARY The results of squint surgery in 42 children with primary, non-paralytic, childhood are analysed.
More informationProfile of Amblyopia at the Pediatric Ophthalmology Clinic of Menilik II Hospital, Addis Ababa
Original article Profile of Amblyopia at the Pediatric Ophthalmology Clinic of Menilik II Hospital, Addis Ababa Alemayehu Woldeyes, Abonesh Girma Abstract Background- Amblyopia is one of the common causes
More informationMEDICAL POLICY SUBJECT: OCULAR PHOTOSCREENING. POLICY NUMBER: CATEGORY: Technology Assessment
MEDICAL POLICY Clinical criteria used to make utilization review decisions are based on credible scientific evidence published in peer reviewed medical literature generally recognized by the medical community.
More informationDiagnosis and Management of Refractive Error in Infants & Young Children A Current Perspective
Diagnosis and Management of Refractive Error in Infants & Young Children A Current Perspective Susan A. Cotter, OD, MS, FAAO SCCO at Marshall B Ketchum University Tawna L. Roberts, OD, PhD, FAAO Akron
More informationPaediatric Ophthalmology Assessment. Justin Mora 2017
Paediatric Ophthalmology Assessment Justin Mora 2017 History Visual developmental milestones Aware of people in the room, reaching for objects, following toys, alignment should be central and stable
More informationOriginal Research Article. Aparajita Chaudhary 1,*, Dharamveer Sharma 2, Namrata Patel 3, Praveen Kumar 4
Original Research Article A comparative study of the efficacy of part time occlusion and full time occlusion therapy in moderate and severe Amblyopia in children and factors influencing the outcome Aparajita
More informationScreening for refractive errors in children: accuracy of the hand held refractor Retinomax to screen for astigmatism
Br J Ophthalmol 1999;83:17 161 17 Ophthalmology Department, Hôpital Universitaire Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium M Cordonnier Department of Biostatistics of the School of Public Health,
More informationScreening for refractive errors in 6-9 month old
British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1984, 68, 105-112 Screening for refractive errors in 6-9 month old infants by photorefraction J. ATKINSON,' 0. J. BRADDICK,' K. DURDEN,' P. G. WATSON,2 AND S. ATKINSON3
More informationProfile of anisometropia in Manipur
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences (IOSR-JDMS) e-issn: 2279-853, p-issn: 2279-861.Volume 14, Issue 12 Ver. VII (Dec. 215), PP 46-52 www.iosrjournals.org Profile of anisometropia in Manipur Reena
More informationn Early Detection/Prevention/Treatment n Vision loss n Loss of binocularity n Eye health n Visual system plasticity
The ABC s of Stress-Free Eye Care for Infants & Young Children Patient photos removed from slides for handout Rationale for Examination Early Detection/Prevention/Treatment Vision loss Loss of binocularity
More informationBilateral Refractive Amblyopia Treatment Study
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Bilateral Refractive Amblyopia Treatment Study 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 May 24, 2004 Version 1.1 ATS7 Protocol 5-24-04.doc 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
More informationBinocular Vision and Stereopsis Following Delayed Strabismus Surgery
Binocular Vision and Stereopsis Following Delayed Strabismus Surgery Davood Gharabaghi, MD 1, Minoo Azadeh, MD 2 Abstract Purpose: Patients with infantile or childhood strabismus who do not achieve visual
More informationPitfalls in testing children's vision by the Sheridan Gardiner single
Brit. J. Ophthal. (I 972) 56, I 35 Pitfalls in testing children's vision by the Sheridan Gardiner single optotype method A. F. HILTON AND J. C. STANLEY Southampton Eye Hospital, Hampshire, England During
More informationA Systematic Review of Vision Screening Tests for the Detection of Amblyopia
A Systematic Review of Vision Screening Tests for the Detection of Amblyopia Alex R. Kemper, MD, MPH; Peter A. Margolis, MD, PhD; Stephen M. Downs, MD, MS; and W. Clayton Bordley, MD, MPH Abstract. Objective.
More informationTwo years results of unilateral lateral rectus recession. on moderate intermittent exotropia
Received: 31.1.2007 Accepted: 28.10.2007 Two years results of unilateral lateral rectus recession on moderate intermittent exotropia Hossein Attarzadeh*, Alireza Zandi*, Kobra Nasrollahi**, Ali Akbar Mortazavi**
More informationAmblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice
Amblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice Valerie M. Kattouf O.D. Chief, Pediatric/Binocular Vision Service FAAO, FCOVD Illinois College of Optometry Associate Professor
More informationAmblyopia Definition 9/25/2017. Strabismic Amblyopia. Amblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice
Amblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice Valerie M. Kattouf O.D. Chief, Pediatric/Binocular Vision Service FAAO, FCOVD Illinois College of Optometry Associate Professor
More informationA mblyopia is the commonest childhood vision disorder
1552 EXTENDED REPORT Refractive adaptation in amblyopia: quantification of effect and implications for practice C E Stewart, M J Moseley, A R Fielder, D A Stephens, and the MOTAS cooperative... See end
More informationScreening in a School for Visual Acuity and Amblyopia
Original Article Screening in a School for Visual Acuity and Amblyopia Ejaz Ahmad Javed, Muhammad Sultan ABSTRACT Objective: To detect the visual acuity by Snellen visual acuity chart and then to find
More informationHYPOTHESIS INTRODUCTION. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 2006;104:
THE INFLUENCE OF REFRACTIVE ERROR MANAGEMENT ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND TREATMENT OUTCOME OF ACCOMMODATIVE ESOTROPIA (AN AMERICAN OPHTHALMOLOGICAL SOCIETY THESIS) BY BRADLEY CHARLES BLACK MD ABSTRACT Purpose:
More informationThe WORST-CASE SCENARIO Survival Handbook
The WORST-CASE SCENARIO Survival Handbook I certify: I have no proprietary interest in the tested product I have no equity interest or significant payments by the sponsor of a covered study Lecture content
More informationArticle. A consideration of binocular parameters in the spectacle correction of anisometropic amblyopia: A Case Report
Article A consideration of binocular parameters in the spectacle correction of anisometropic amblyopia: A Case Report William R. Bobier OD, PhD, FAAO, MBCO a ; Peter J. Shaw, OD b a School of Optometry,
More informationBINOCULAR DEPTH PERCEPTION IN SMALL-ANGLE
Brit. J. Ophthal. (1959) 43, 662. BINOCULAR DEPTH PERCEPTION IN SMALL-ANGLE STRABISMUS* BY E. J. NAYLOR AND A. STANWORTH Department of Ophthalmology, University of Manchester MEASUREMENTS of the binocular
More informationFACTORS AFFECTING STEREO-ACUITY IN ACCOMMODATIVE ESOTROPIA
wjpmr, 2018,4(6), 93-97 SJIF Impact Factor: 4.639 Research Article WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND MEDICAL RESEARCH ISSN 2455-3301 www.wjpmr.com WJPMR FACTORS AFFECTING STEREO-ACUITY IN ACCOMMODATIVE
More information10/4/2016. Organic (systemic) Form deprivation (structural) Strabismic Refractive Isometric Anisometric
Marc B. Taub, OD, MS, FAAO, FCOVD Chief, Vision Therapy and Rehabilitation Southern College of Optometry Editor in Chief, Optometry & Visual Performance A difference in the VA of the two eyes of at least
More informationDouble Vision as a Presenting Symptom in Adults Without Acquired or Long- Standing Strabismus
Double Vision as a Presenting Symptom in Adults Without Acquired or Long- Standing Strabismus Sara Shippman, C.O. Larisa Heiser, C.O. Kenneth R. Cohen, M.D., F.A.C.S. Lisabeth Hall, M.D. ABSTRACT Background:
More informationBINOCULAR MECHANISMS IN SMALL-ANGLE
Brit. J. Ophthal. (1959) 43, 648. BINOCULAR MECHANISMS IN SMALL-ANGLE STRABISMUS* BY A. STANWORTH AND DAPHNE DA CUNHA University of Manchester and Manchester Royal Eye Hospital THE purpose of treatment
More informationPart-Time Occlusion Therapy for Anisometropic Amblyopia Detected in Children Eight Years of Age and Older
Part-Time Occlusion Therapy for Anisometropic Amblyopia Detected in Children Eight Years of Age and Older Young Rok Lee, MD 1, Ju Youn Lee, MD 2 Department of Ophthalmology, Hallym University College of
More informationPenalization versus Part... time Occlusion and Binocular Outcome in Treatment of Strabismic Amblyopia
Penalization versus Part... time Occlusion and Binocular Outcome in Treatment of Strabismic Amblyopia Kurt Simons, PhD, Katherina C. Gotzler, MD, Susan Vitale, MHS Objective: The purpose of the study is
More informationWhen & how to Rx glasses in children
When & how to Rx glasses in children Nikos Kozeis MD, PhD, FEBO, MRCOphth Consultant Pediatric Ophthalmologist Thessaloniki, Greece The menu of the talk When & How should we Rx glasses? * We ll discuss
More informationIncidence of Amblyopia in Strabismic Population
Original Article Incidence of Amblyopia in Strabismic Population Mian M. Shafique, NaeemUllah, Nadeem H. Butt, Muhammad Khalil, Tayyaba Gul Pak J Ophthalmol 2007, Vol. 23 No. 1.................................................................................................
More informationNotes compiled for Pediatrics. Ophthalmology. (Med I, Block 5, OP)
Notes compiled for Pediatrics Ophthalmology (Med I, Block 5, OP) Amblyopia and Strabismus University of Manitoba Faculty of Medicine MedII/OP7 Dr. P. Shuckett 2008-09 Objectives: 1. To state how to measure
More informationPediatric Eye Exams: Tricks of the Trade Optometry s Meeting June 2014
Pediatric Eye Exams: Tricks of the Trade Optometry s Meeting June 2014 Susan Cotter, OD, MS, FAAO Marshall B Ketchum University Erin Jenewein, OD, MS, FAAO Nova Southeastern University College of Optometry
More informationLong-Term Surgical Outcome of Partially Accommodative Esotropia
Long-Term Surgical Outcome of Partially Accommodative Esotropia Kyle Arnoldi, C.O., C.O.M.T. ABSTRACT Partially accommodative esotropia is an acquired strabismus characterized by high hyperopia, a normal
More informationRichman Face Dot Test Paddle
Introduction and Purpose Richman Face Dot Test Paddle Developed by Jack Richman, OD, FAAO, FCOVD Professor, Pediatric Optometry/ Binocular Vision Services New England Eye Institute New England College
More informationClinical Characteristics of Intermittent Exotropia
International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences Vol. 2 (1), pp. 042-046, 27 January, 2012 International Scholars Journals (http://internationalscholarsjournals.org) Full Length Research Paper Clinical
More informationEarly Predict the Outcomes of Refractive Accommodative Esotropia by Initial Presentations
Original Article 887 Early Predict the Outcomes of Refractive Accommodative Esotropia by Initial Presentations Hui-Chun Lai, MD; Henry Shen-Lih Chen, MD; Yeong-Fong Chen, MD; Yih-Shien Chiang 1 ; Meng-Ling
More informationAMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY
AMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY OCCLUSION VERSUS PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY FOR MODERATE AMBLYOPIA PROTOCOL Version 4 April 1, 2000 ats1 protocol v4 1April2000.doc ATS CONTACT INFORMATION Jaeb Center for Health Research
More information15) PENCIL PUSH-UP THE ECONOMICAL AND EASY ANSWER TO SYMPTOMATIC CONVERGENCE INSUFFICIENCY ABSTRACT
15) PENCIL PUSH-UP THE ECONOMICAL AND EASY ANSWER TO SYMPTOMATIC CONVERGENCE INSUFFICIENCY Dr. Shiv S Malli, Dr.Suhani Desai, Dr. Chinmayi Vyas, Dr. Reema Raval, Dr. Nitin Trivedi, C.H. Nagri Municipal
More informationPhoria and vergence ranges are often performed behind
Normative data for modified Thorington phorias and prism bar vergences from the Benton-IU study Don W. Lyon, O.D., a David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D., a Douglas Horner, O.D., Ph.D., a John P. Downey, O.D., a
More informationThe Royal College of Ophthalmologists. Parent Information Squint/Strabismus
Parent Information Squint/Strabismus This leaflet is designed to answer some of the general queries relating to squint in childhood. The Children s Eye Care Team An OPHTHALMOLOGIST is a doctor who specialises
More informationScreening for abnormal levels of hyperopia in children: a non-cycloplegic method with a hand held refractor
126 Ophthalmology Department, Hopital Universitaire Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles M Cordonnier Department of biostatistics of the School of Public Health, Université Libre de Bruxelles M Dramaix
More informationHow Often Are Spectacles Prescribed to Normal Preschool Children?
How Often Are Spectacles Prescribed to Normal Preschool Children? Sean P. Donahue, MD, PhD Introduction: Legislation to require formal eye examination prior to school entry is being considered in several
More informationScreening for refractive errors at age 1
Screening for refractive errors at age 1 a pilot study British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1979, 63, 243-250 year: R. M. INGRAM, M. J. TRAYNAR, C. WALKER, AND J. M. WILSON From the Kettering and District
More informationCLINICAL SCIENCES. A Prospective Pilot Study of Treatment Outcomes for Amblyopia Associated With Myopic Anisometropia
ONLINE FIRST CLINICAL SCIENCES A Prospective Pilot Study of Treatment Outcomes for Amblyopia Associated With Myopic Anisometropia Yi Pang, MD, OD, PhD; Christine Allison, OD; Kelly A. Frantz, OD; Sandra
More informationPearls for Examining and Prescribing for Preschool Children Refractive Decisions Key Questions to Guide Us:
1 2 Pearls for Examining and Prescribing for Preschool Children J.P. Lowery, OD, MEd, FAAO Professor, Chief of Pediatrics loweryj@pacificu.edu Pacific University College of Optometry Refractive Decisions
More informationIntermittent Exotropia, When to Recommend Glasses and When to Perform Surgery?
Med. J. Cairo Univ., Vol. 86, No. 1, March: 289-296, 2018 www.medicaljournalofcairouniversity.net Intermittent Exotropia, When to Recommend Glasses and When to Perform Surgery? SHAIMAA H.M. SOKEER, M.Sc.;
More informationIndicators for Prescribing Spectacles in Normal Preschool Children. The author has no financial interest in any optical product or company.
Indicators for Prescribing Spectacles in Normal Preschool Children Sean P. Donahue, M.D., Ph.D. Vanderbilt University Medical Center Nashville, Tennessee Kaiser Symposium June 2008 The author has no financial
More informationClinical Pearls: Infant vision examination Deborah Orel-Bixler, PhD, OD University of California, Berkeley School of Optometry
Clinical Pearls: Infant vision examination Deborah Orel-Bixler, PhD, OD University of California, Berkeley School of Optometry Recommended ages for examinations Recommended populations Recommendations
More information"A" AND "V" PHENOMENA*t
Brit. J. Ophthal. (1966) 50, 718 "A" AND "V" PHENOMENA*t DHANWANT SINGH, GURBUX SINGH, L. P. AGGARWAL, AND PREM CHANDRA BY From the Department of Ophthalmology, Government Medical College, Patiala, and
More informationPhotorefractive keratectomy for myopic anisometropia: A retrospective study on 18 children
European Journal of Ophthalmology / Vol. 18 no. 5, 2008 / pp. 716-722 Photorefractive keratectomy for myopic anisometropia: A retrospective study on 18 children A. MAGLI 1, A. IOVINE 1, V. GAGLIARDI 1,
More informationNormal and amblyopic contrast sensitivity functions in central and peripheral retinas
Normal and amblyopic contrast sensitivity functions in central and peripheral retinas Joseph Thomas Contrast sensitivity functions (CSF's)for temporally modulated sine wave gratings were established at
More informationEye Exams for Infants & Young Children The Do s & Don ts. Children 3-5 yrs be screened at least 1x to detect amblyopia & amblyogenic risk factors
Eye Exams for Infants & Young Children The Do s & Don ts Disclosures Photos removed for handout File too large even as PDF Susan Co@er, OD, MS Southern CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University
More informationCLINICAL SCIENCES. The Clinical Profile of Moderate Amblyopia in Children Younger Than 7 Years
The Clinical Profile of Moderate Amblyopia in Children Younger Than 7 Years The Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group CLINICAL SCIENCES Objective: To describe the demographic and clinical characteristics
More informationOptical Treatment of Amblyopia in Astigmatic Children
Optical Treatment of Amblyopia in Astigmatic Children The Sensitive Period for Successful Treatment Erin M. Harvey, PhD, 1,2 Velma Dobson, PhD, 1,3 Candice E. Clifford-Donaldson, MPH, 1 Joseph M. Miller,
More informationSupplementary Online Content
Supplementary Online Content Gao TY, Guo CX, Babu RJ, et al; the BRAVO Study Team. Effectiveness of a binocular video game vs placebo video game for improving visual functions in older children, teenagers,
More informationThe focus of this paper is the
Refraction planning in cataract: avoid creating an unhappy patient BY ROBERT H TAYLOR, ROGER B ELLINGHAM It is much more important to know what sort of a patient has a disease than what sort of a disease
More informationVisual Impairment & Eye Health in Children. Susan Cotter, OD, MS So CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University Fullerton, CA
Visual Impairment & Eye Health in Children Susan Cotter, OD, MS So CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University Fullerton, CA Consequences of Childhood VI Social Emotional Physical Educational
More informationOptical Treatment Reduces Amblyopia in Astigmatic Children Who Receive Spectacles Before Kindergarten
Optical Treatment Reduces Amblyopia in Astigmatic Children Who Receive Spectacles Before Kindergarten Velma Dobson, PhD, 1,2 Candice E. Clifford-Donaldson, MPH, 1 Tina K. Green, MS, 1 Joseph M. Miller,
More informationAMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY (ATS20) Binocular Dig Rush Game Treatment for Amblyopia
1 2 3 4 AMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY (ATS20) 5 6 7 8 Binocular Dig Rush Game Treatment for Amblyopia 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 PROTOCOL Version 1.0 7 November 2016 ATS20ProtocolV1.0_11-07-16 21 22
More informationAmblyopia Management Past, Present and Future. Rachel Clarke Specialist Orthoptist, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital
Amblyopia Management Past, Present and Future Rachel Clarke Specialist Orthoptist, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital Amblyopia Amblyopia is the most common cause of preventable visual loss in children and
More informationFinancial Disclosures. Amblyopia: What the Studies Show. Acknowledgements. Development of PEDIG. PEDIG Protocols. Amblyopia Treatment Dogma Pre-ATS
Amblyopia: What the Studies Show Zachary S. McCarty, OD Financial Disclosures Acknowledgements Development of PEDIG PEDIG is a network dedicated to conducting multi-center studies in strabismus, amblyopia,
More informationPostnatal control of eye growth and the development of the. The Accommodative Lag of the Young Hyperopic Patient
Visual Psychophysics and Physiological Optics The Accommodative Lag of the Young Hyperopic Patient T. Rowan Candy, Kathryn H. Gray, Christy C. Hohenbary, and Don W. Lyon PURPOSE. To determine the accommodative
More informationArticle. Reverse-Engineering of Hyperopic Anisometropic Refractive Amblyopia. Leonard J. Press, OD, FAAO, FCOVD; Daniel J.
Article Reverse-Engineering of Hyperopic Anisometropic Refractive Amblyopia Leonard J. Press, OD, FAAO, FCOVD; Daniel J. Press, OD, FCOVD Private Practice, Fair Lawn, NJ Abstract Background. Uncompensated
More informationAMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY
AMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY ATS2 AN EVALUATION OF PATCHING REGIMENS FOR AMBLYOPIA A. A Randomized Trial Comparing Part-time Versus Full-time Patching for Severe Amblyopia B. A Randomized Trial Comparing
More informationRefractive development in children with Down s syndrome: a population based, longitudinal study
Department of Ophthalmology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway O H Haugen G Høvding Vestlund Habilitation Resource Center I Lundström Correspondence to: Olav H Haugen, Department of Ophthalmology,
More informationAmblyopia and amblyopia treatment study
Amblyopia and amblyopia treatment study Shrestha UD, 1* Adhikari S 1 1 Pediatric Ophthalmology Unit, 1 Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, Kathmandu, Nepal *Corresponding Author: Dr. Ujjowala Devi Shrestha,
More informationTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANISOMETROPIA, PATIENT AGE, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMBLYOPIA
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANISOMETROPIA, PATIENT AGE, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMBLYOPIA BY Sean P. Donahue MD PhD ABSTRACT Purpose: Anisometropia is a common cause of amblyopia. The relationship between
More informationMicrotropia Versus Bifoveal Fixation in Anisometropic Amblyopia
ye (1991) 5, 576-584 Microtropia Versus Bifoveal Fixation in Anisometropic Amblyopia S. J. HARDMAN LA, M. P. SNAD, J. LOADS, M. P. RBINSTIN Nottingham Summary Microtropia with identity is a unique condition
More informationINFANTS AND HYPEROPIA LIONEL KOWAL ACBO 2009
INFANTS AND HYPEROPIA LIONEL KOWAL ACBO 2009 9mo, straight, +6 DS OU documented when examined for epiphora What do you do? Retinoscopy gives the answer Dry ret to assess functional significance of wet
More informationVisual acuity in a national sample of 10 year old children
Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 1985, 39, 107-112 Visual acuity in a national sample of 10 year old children SARAH STEWART-BROWN AND NEVILLE BUTLER From the Department of Child Health, University
More informationPatients and methods. There are 2 categories of patients with unilateral
British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1982, 66, 680-684 Results of treatment of anisohypermetropic amblyopia ithout strabismus DHAN KRISHNA SEN From the Department of Ophthalmology, Maulana Azad Medical College
More informationJasonC.S.Yam, 1 Gabriela S. L. Chong, 2 Patrick K. W. Wu, 2 Ursula S. F. Wong, 2 Clement W. N. Chan, 2 and Simon T. C. Ko 2. 1.
BioMed Research International, Article ID 482093, 4 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/482093 Research Article Predictive Factors Affecting the Short Term and Long Term Exodrift in Patients with Intermittent
More informationFacilitation of Amblyopia Management by Laser In situ Keratomileusis in Children with Myopic Anisometropia
Facilitation of Amblyopia Management by Laser In situ Keratomileusis in Children with Myopic Anisometropia Athens 2018 Amblyopia Amblyopia is a decrease in visual acuity in one eye due to abnormal visual
More informationPrevalence of amblyopia and patterns of refractive error in the amblyopic children of a tertiary eye care center of Nepal
Sapkota K et al Original article in the amblyopic children of a tertiary eye care center of Nepal Sapkota K1, Pirouzian A2, Matta NS3 1 Nepal Eye Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2Gavin Herbert Eye Institute,
More informationReena Patel, OD, FAAO
Reena Patel, OD, FAAO 5 to 10% of all preschool-aged children o Significant refractive error o Amblyopia Poor vision o Strabismus Misalignment of the eyes Myopia o nearsightedness Hyperopia o farsightedness
More informationAmblyopia affects approximately three percent of the population
The Effect of Amblyopia on Fine Motor Skills in Children Ann L. Webber, 1 Joanne M. Wood, 1 Glen A. Gole, 2 and Brian Brown 1 PURPOSE. In an investigation of the functional impact of amblyopia in children,
More informationApproximately two decades ago, the first automated
State of the Art Guidelines for automated preschool vision screening: A 10-year, evidence-based update Sean P. Donahue, MD, PhD, a Brian Arthur, MD, b Daniel E. Neely, MD, c Robert W. Arnold, MD, d David
More informationOutcome of Strabismus Surgery by Nonadjustable Suture among Adults Attending a University Hospital of Saudi Arabia
[Downloaded free from http://www.njcponline.com on Monday, March 6, 7, IP: 65.55.65.] Original Article Outcome of Strabismus Surgery by Nonadjustable Suture among Adults Attending a University Hospital
More informationOpen Access Journal of Ophthalmology
Esotropia Anurag Narula 1 * and Shilpa Singh 2 1Safdarjung Hospital, VMMC, India 2Visitech Eye Centre, India *Corresponding author: Anurag Narula, Consultant, Safdarjung Hospital, Vardhman Short Communication
More informationAmblyopia Management
Ophthalmic Deliberations ISSN 0972-0200 Amblyopia Management Prolima Thacker, Ken K. Nischal, T S Surendran, B.S. Goel, Frank J Martin, Seyhan B. Özkan, Kamlesh, Subhash Dadeya Prolima Thacker MBBS, MS
More informationLong term follow up of premature infants: detection of strabismus, amblyopia, and refractive errors
Br J Ophthalmol 2000;84:963 967 963 FC Donders Institute of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, Utrecht, N E Schalij-Delfos MELdeGraaf WFTreVers Centre for Quantitative Methods, Eindhoven, J Engel Department
More informationDisclosures. Exam Frequency. Which Kids Need Eye Exams? Nystagmus (Jiggly Eyes) Eye Exams: High Priority 9/1/15
Vision & Young Children: 10 Things Every Optometric Assistant Should Know Disclosures Commercial: none Salary Support: NIH/NEI Susan CoEer, OD, MS Southern CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University
More informationSUMMARY: 1) Why is pediatric vision screening important?
SUMMARY: In January 2016 a new joint policy statement from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO), American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus
More informationSUPPORTING THE VISION NEEDS OF YOUNG ORANGE COUNTY STUDENTS
Attachment 1 SUPPORTING THE VISION NEEDS OF YOUNG ORANGE COUNTY STUDENTS Marc Lerner, M.D. Medical Officer VISION ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION: PROGRAMMING GOALS Broad footprint High quality Appropriate
More informationEvidence Synthesis Number 81
Evidence Synthesis Number 81 Screening for Visual Impairment in Children Ages 1 5 Years: Systematic Review to Update the 2004 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Prepared for: Agency for
More informationCharacterizing Parental Adherence To Amblyopia Therapy At Menelik Ii Referral Hospital In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Yale University EliScholar A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale Yale Medicine Thesis Digital Library School of Medicine January 2016 Characterizing Parental Adherence To Amblyopia Therapy
More informationAMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY
AMBLYOPIA TREATMENT STUDY ATS8 A Randomized Trial Comparing Atropine to Atropine Plus a Plano Lens for the Sound Eye As Prescribed Treatments for Amblyopia in Children 3 to
More informationAnisometropia Magnitude and Amblyopia Depth in Previously Untreated Unilateral Amblyopia Patients
Open ccess Library Journal 2017, Volume 4, e3565 ISSN Online: 2333-9721 ISSN Print: 2333-9705 nisometropia Magnitude and mblyopia Depth in Previously Untreated Unilateral mblyopia Patients Şeref Istek
More informationLow Plus Prescriptions - Summary of Evidence
Low Plus Prescriptions - Summary of Evidence By Steve Leslie BOptom, Leonard Press OD & Mark Overton Behavioural optometrists use low plus prescriptions to optimise near vision performance, based on well-established
More informationVision Screening in Children Aged 6 Months to 5 Years Evidence Report and Systematic Review
Clinical Review & Education JAMA US Preventive Services Task Force EVIDENCE REPORT Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force Daniel E. Jonas, MD, MPH; Halle R. Amick,
More informationVERGENCE AND ACCOMMODATION SYSTEM IN MALAY PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN. Ai Hong Chen & Ahmad Hakimi Zainol Abidin
Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol. 9, No. 1, January 2002 (9-) ORIGINAL ARTICLE VERGENCE AND ACCOMMODATION SYSTEM IN MALAY PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN Ai Hong Chen & Ahmad Hakimi Zainol Abidin Department
More informationThe Effect of Successful Surgical Alignment on Improvement of Binocular Vision in Adults with Childhood Strabismus
The Effect of Successful Surgical Alignment on Improvement of Binocular Vision in Adults with Childhood Strabismus Dima Andalib, MD 1 Reza Nabie, MD 1 Bayan Poormohammad, MD 2 Abstract Purpose: To evaluate
More informationOcular Motility in Health and Disease
Ocular Motility in Health and Disease Contents: Extraocular Muscles Eye Movements Single Binocular Vision Strabismus Amblyopia Objectives: By the end of this course the undergraduate student should be
More informationIMPORTANCE OF INFANT EYE CARE (OTHER)
Dr. Silvia Han graduated from University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) with a Bachelor of Science in Marshall B. Ketchum University. Upon graduation from SCCO, Dr. Han completed a residency in Pediatric
More informationOUTCOME OF SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF RESIDUAL AND RECURRENT ESOTROPIA.
OUTCOME OF SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF RESIDUAL AND RECURRENT ESOTROPIA. ABDALLH M ALAMIN Department of ophthalmology faculty of medicine Al Azhar university ABSTRACT Aim This study: evaluates the outcome of
More informationThink Outside the Box. Strabismus & Amblyopia. Prescribing. Amblyopia 5/9/2017. Goals of today s lecture: Kacie Monroe, OD, FCOVD. Peripheral Movement
Think Outside the Box Strabismus & Kacie Monroe, OD, FCOVD Goals of today s lecture: Define success in treatment Determine the best path to get there Spoiler: it may not be what you think Provide specific
More informationVisual Deficits in Amblyopia
Human Amblyopia Lazy Eye Relatively common developmental visual disorder (~2%) Reduced visual acuity in an otherwise healthy and properly corrected eye Associated with interruption of normal early visual
More informationThe Ethiopian Journal of Health Development
The Ethiopian Journal of Health Development Original article Prevalence of strabismus among pre-school children community in Butajira Town Abeba Tekle Giorgis, Abebe Bejiga Department of Ophthalmology,
More information