Forty Years of Kinesiology: A Canadian Perspective

Transcription

1 Quest 2007, 59, American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education Forty Years of Kinesiology: A Canadian Perspective Digby Elliott This paper provides a brief history of the worldʼs first two kinesiology programs at the University of Waterloo and Simon Fraser University, and then gives an overview of the development of kinesiology in Canada over the last 40 years. The issues addressed include departmental affiliation and accreditation, the development of provincial and national professional alliances, and the establishment of kinesiology as a regulated health profession. Kinesiology has a long history as an academic program in Canada. In fact, Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia, and the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario, developed the first ever kinesiology programs at about the same time in the mid to late 1960s. The two programs appear to have evolved independently and in parallel. Which university was first really depends on the criteria one chooses to adopt. What is clear is that the concept of kinesiology as a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human movement has grown tremendously over the last 40 years. In 2006, kinesiology and human kinetics programs outnumber physical education programs in Canada by more than 2 to1 with another 20% of the programs adopting a shared designation (Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators, 2006). In this paper, I will provide a Canadian perspective on kinesiology. First, I will offer some historical background on the early Waterloo and Simon Fraser programs. I will then examine where the concept of kinesiology has taken Canadian post-secondary school education over the last four decades. For readers not old enough to remember, the 1960s was an innovative time. The very first of the Baby Boomers were approaching adulthood and they were having a tremendous impact on both the economy and popular culture. For the first time in North America, post-secondary school education was a viable option for a large segment of the adolescent/young adult population. In Canada, and elsewhere, governments were spending tax dollars on the infrastructure required for the large numbers of high school students who wished to continue their studies at a university or college level. Simon Fraser University and the University of Waterloo were relatively new universities that were growing rapidly in size. Unhindered by a long history of academic traditions, they attempted to compete The author is with the Dept of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1. elliott@mcmaster.ca 154

2 Kinesiology in Canada 155 with the older established universities in Canada by offering a variety of innovative, nontraditional programs. This is the climate in which kinesiology at Simon Fraser and Waterloo was born. At Waterloo, kinesiology was the brainchild of Norm Ashton. Professor Ashton arrived at the University of Waterloo in He had been employed by the Royal Canadian Air Force where, as a fitness specialist, he had developed various training and fitness programs including the 10BX plan. At that time Waterloo, and a number of other Ontario universities, were offering a 1-year bachelor of physical education degree to registrants who had already obtained a 3-year university degree in either arts or science. The 1-year program offered specialized training in physical education and health. It was targeted at people who wished to become physical education teachers. In 1965, the University of Waterloo decided to expand its existing program into a 4-year physical education degree that once again would be directed toward the training of physical educators for the school system. Professor Ashton was hired to help develop this new program. Consistent with many of the other programs at Waterloo, particularly engineering, the new physical education program at Waterloo was to be offered on a cooperative basis where students alternated semesters in the classroom with a related work experience (Ashton, 2006). In developing the new program, Professor Ashton began to question the need for another professional program focused on teacher training. Instead the concept of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human movement developed. He was driven partly by the gaps in scientific knowledge associated with the physical education literature he had encountered during his air force and coaching days. The idea was that, along with the practical experiences associated with cooperative education, a curriculum grounded in the basic biological and social sciences associated with human movement would offer students a broader range of opportunities to apply their university training. The term kinesiology was adopted to identify the approach that Professor Ashton initially referred to as nonprofessional study of human physical movement. He presented his ideas on this new model to a meeting of Ontario university physical education faculty members held at York University in Toronto in December A year later the proposed kinesiology program was approved by the University of Waterloo Senate. Thus the first department of kinesiology was established in 1967 (Ashton, 2006). For those first few years, the academic program at Waterloo was a work in progress that included developing course concepts and acquiring faculty. Figure 1 is a reproduction of a handout given to incoming kinesiology students in It provides a visual depiction of Professor Ashtonʼs concept of the sciences and social sciences that provide a foundation for the scientific study of human movement (i.e., cell to society). I started as an undergraduate in the Waterloo program in 1969, and remember a good mix of within department offerings (e.g., anatomy, introduction to kinesiology) and courses taught by other departments that were designed to provide a base for subsequent departmental courses (e.g., introductory psychology for motor learning; physics for biomechanics). As students, we were soon sold on the idea that kinesiology was the approach of the future and that we were leading the way at Waterloo. Over the first few years of the program, Professor Ashton and Howie Green (exercise physiology) recruited a strong cadre of young scientists who shared their vision. These included Mike Houston (biochemistry), Bob Norman (biomechanics), Pat Bishop (biomechanics), Ian Williams (motor

3 156 Elliott Figure 1 Norm Ashtonʼs 1968 model of kinesiology (adapted from a figure on page 2 of his website). learning), and Neil Widmeyer (sport psychology). Before long the new department attracted a number of other scientists who had already established themselves as independent researchers in the academic community (e.g., Gerald Kenyon and Barry McPherson in sociology, Ron Marteniuk in motor control and learning, and David Winter in engineering/biomechanics). Along with the initial faculty cohort, these new appointments provided the depth required for the establishment of MSc and PhD programs in kinesiology in 1972 and 1976, respectively (N.J. Ashton, personal communication, July 12, 2006). At the same time Waterloo was attempting to define kinesiology, another young exercise physiologist, Eric Banister, on the other side of the country was engaged in a similar process. Simon Fraser University opened in At Simon Fraser, kinesiology found its first roots in a Physical Development Centre that was part of the Faculty of Education. The Centre offered an academic program called Physical Development Studies that was first chaired by Dr. Glen Kirchner. This Department offered several degree programs including a Bachelor of Science (Kinesiology) that started in September 1967 in a large part due to the efforts of Dr. Eric Banister. Like the Waterloo program, Dr. Banisterʼs program was multidisciplinary, although

4 Kinesiology in Canada 157 Figure 2 Areas of special emphasis in kinesiology at Simon Fraser University during the academic year (adapted from Simon Fraser University, 1975, p. 271). the early course offerings were weighted more to the biosciences as opposed to social sciences. By 1972, Dr. Banister had taken the program at Simon Fraser to full department status in the Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, and a larger selection of course offerings were available. Some of the early faculty members were Arthur Chapman (biomechanics), Allan Davison (biochemistry), Bill Ross (anthropometry), and Gordon Bhakthan (cell physiology/chemistry), Marg Savage (exercise physiology) and Tom Calvert (systems analysis). Figure 2 is a reproduction of a diagram published in the 1975 Simon Fraser University calendar depicting the areas of specialization that had developed throughout the previous 5 or 6 years (Simon Fraser University, 1975).

5 158 Elliott Over the next 20 years, several new kinesiology programs were born and many other programs that had traditionally concentrated on the training of physical educators made the transition to kinesiology. The shift in focus for many institutions was driven partly by the supply of trained physical education teachers outstripping the demand, and partly by the new opportunities in the workplace associated with kinesiology (e.g., ergonomics, exercise rehabilitation). In Ontario at least, many of the new job opportunities for kinesiologists grew out of the cooperative program at Waterloo and the positive impact that kinesiology co-op students and graduates were having in the workplace (N.J. Ashton, personal communication, July 12, 2006). At many schools with their roots in physical education, it was also becoming the case that the faculty members with general training could no longer master the increasing complexity of all the sub-areas associated with new physical education and kinesiology course offerings. With academic specialization, a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human movement took hold quite naturally, particularly when physical education generalists began to retire. Many Canadian universities faced similar practical challenges in either establishing kinesiology programs or updating physical education curricula to meet the new demands associated with specialization. Traditionally many physical education programs were intimately linked to the university service programs. This was the case at my university (McMaster University) where in the 1970s and 1980s the School of Physical Education and Athletics was responsible for not only undergraduate and graduate academic programs but also student intramural and recreational services and inter-university varsity athletics. Faculty members were often expected to contribute to the academic program and also teach activity courses and/or coach a varsity team. With academic specialization, this made appointments difficult. No longer was it possible to find someone who, for example, was able to teach biomechanics and coach varsity hockey. At McMaster, this situation fostered an administrative split that resulted in a Department of Physical Education and a new Department of Athletics and Recreation. Physical Education remained in the Faculty of Social Sciences, while Athletics and Recreation was treated as a nonacademic unit under the umbrella of Student Services. This initial split was necessary for what resulted in a shift in academic orientation and a name change to the Department of Kinesiology several years later. A similar process occurred at a number of other Canadian universities. Other institutions followed different paths. At some schools (e.g., University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Windsor, and University of New Brunswick), faculties or colleges of kinesiology/human kinetics evolved that included separate academic and student service programs. At universities in which kinesiology/human kinetics holds departmental/school, as opposed to faculty status, the affiliations are extremely varied. Departments are associated with the Faculties of Education (e.g., University of British Columbia, University of Victoria), Applied Sciences (e.g., Simon Fraser University), Applied Health Sciences (University of Waterloo), Health Sciences (e.g., University of Ottawa, University of Western Ontario), Science (e.g., Wilfrid Laurier University), and Professional Studies (e.g., Lakehead University, Acadia University). Some of the older universities in Canada have chosen to maintain the physical education tradition (e.g., University of Toronto, Faculty of Physical Education and Health; Queenʼs University, School of Physical and Health Education; Université Laval, Departement dʼéducation Physique) or

6 Kinesiology in Canada 159 adopt a dual-designation (e.g., McGill University, Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education). Although for a number of years curricula were as diverse as the department names and affiliation, over the last several years there has been an attempt by department chairs, deans, and directors associated with kinesiology and physical education programs to come to some agreement about what constitutes a minimal academic base for kinesiology and physical education programs. The vehicle for developing these academic standards has been the Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators (CCUPEKA; Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators, 2006; Harrigan, 2004). This group held its first national meeting in 1971, and now represents 35 different post-secondary institutions in Canada. While over the years it has served a number of roles, CCUPEKA has recently been instrumental in helping define what constitutes an undergraduate kinesiology and physical education program in Canada (Harrigan, 2004). Since 2000 CCUPEKA has overseen a voluntary accreditation process that sets and evaluates minimum standards of education and training for kinesiology programs in Canada while recognizing that at least some between-program diversity is desirable. There is a separate accreditation process for physical education. In developing curriculum, individual programs in Canada have had to decide whether they want to seek accreditation as a kinesiology program, a physical education program, or both. While CCUPEKA accreditation is a voluntary process, the majority of kinesiology and physical education programs in the country have either undergone or are currently undergoing this external review process (Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators, 2006). Consistent with Professor Ashtonʼs vision of kinesiology in late 1960s, the core courses necessary for kinesiology accreditation include a wide range, from biological to social sciences. The core courses identified by CCUPEKA are human anatomy, human physiology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, motor learning/ control, psychology of physical activity, and two additional courses in the social sciences and/or humanities area. The curriculum for a kinesiology program must also include two courses in research methods and/or statistics, with at least four core courses having associated laboratory experiences (minimum 96 hours). In order to meet breadth requirements, at least 50% of all courses (i.e., 20 of 40 one-semester courses in a typical 4-year program) must be taught by the kinesiology unit. For depth, there must be at least four advanced level kinesiology courses. To ensure year-to-year continuity, 75% or more of all kinesiology offerings must be taught by full-time faculty members. Interestingly, the basic core for physical education is identical. However, the emphasis on research methods, laboratory, and advanced science/social science experiences is replaced by activity courses, health, pedagogy, and special populations requirements (Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators, 2006). Although the kinesiology core is reasonably standard in most Canadian universities, upper level course offerings, areas of specialization, and particularly graduate program areas are often driven by the targeted areas defined by the university, as well as specific regional interests. For example, the University of Windsor has taken advantage of the local auto industry and developed a strong profile in the human factors, injury prevention, and the applied biomechanics area. Partly because of

7 160 Elliott its history with cooperative education, Waterloo has also become known for ergonomics, as well as the clinical application of kinesiology to the neurobehavioral assessment and treatment of people with brain injury. Many of the departments situated in universities with a medical program have taken a decidedly health-oriented slant in the undergraduate and graduate areas of specialization (e.g., McMaster, Saskatchewan, Western). The University of Calgary has taken advantage of the infrastructure associated with the 1988 Winter Olympics and has specialized in high performance sport. Certainly kinesiology is viewed by many undergraduates across the country as the best preparatory degree program for professional training in medicine, and physical and occupational therapy. Within the last several years, movement scientists working in the community have lobbied for the establishment of a professional certification process for kinesiology. The group most involved in this initiative is the Canadian Kinesiology Alliance (CKA) and the provincial associations that make up its membership. The function of the CKA is to promote kinesiology as a profession and to provide a national voice for kinesiologists working in the community. Certification varies somewhat from province to province, as does the scope of what is considered professional kinesiology (Canadian Kinesiology Alliance, 2006). For the Ontario Kinesiology Alliance, the scope of practice is defined as follows: The practice of Kinesiology is the assessment of movement, performance, and function; and the rehabilitation, prevention, and management of disorders to maintain, rehabilitate, and enhance movement, performance, and function in the areas of sport, recreation, work, exercise, and activities of daily living (Ontario Kinesiology Alliance, 2006a, p. 1). In order to be certified as a kinesiologist in Ontario, an applicant must have a 4-year degree from a kinesiology or human kinetics department and have a least one credit in each of four core areas of human anatomy, human physiology, biomechanics, and psychomotor behaviour/motor control and learning. They must also have at least 16 other single semester courses selected from a menu of kinesiology courses (see Table 1; Ontario Kinesiology Alliance, 2006b, p. 2). Thus the 20 courses in total are designed to be consistent with the CCUPEKA requirements outlined earlier. Although this menu includes several social science and humanities courses, the core is such that the biosciences receive greater protection. A health, bioscience, and more clinical emphasis is also consistent with specific employment examples listed on the British Columbia Kinesiology Alliance website (e.g., injury rehabilitation, exercise therapy, ergonomics, design of fitness and health programs, biomedical equipment, technology, and disability management). With respect to certification/registration criteria, CKA maintains that it is working with CCUPEKA and the provincial associations to achieve a consistent Canadian standard. In fact, the CCUPEKA accreditation process has made it much easier for CKA and its provincial members to evaluate whether individual applications meet the certification standard. This is because a graduate of an accredited university program will automatically meet the CKA standard. Another very recent development in Ontario could have far-reaching implications for kinesiology as a profession in Canada. Specifically, the Health Professions Regulatory Advisory Council has recently recommended to the Ministry of Health

8 Kinesiology in Canada 161 Table 1 Elective Courses for Certification Course Title Human Anatomy Biomechanics Human Physiology/ Exercise or Work Physiology Psychomotor Behaviour/ Motor Control & Learning Sports Medicine Adaptives of Kinesiology Ergonomics/ Human Factors Statistics Research Design Fitness Evaluation Exercise Management/ Rehabilitation Nutrition Health Science Gerontology Kinesiology Neurophysiology Psychology of Movement Sociology of Movement Human Pathology Human Growth and Development Philosophy/ Ethics Biology Chemistry Physics Biochemistry Organic Chemistry Computer Science Functional Measurement and Evaluation Individual Study (Kinesiology) Research Project (Kinesiology) Note. Adapted from the Certified Membership Application 2004 from the Ontario Kinesiology Alliance website. and Long-Term Care that kinesiology become a provincially regulated health profession. This would involve the establishment of a college of kinesiology for the province that would establish professional exams, admission, and disciplinary procedures (Ontario Kinesiology Alliance, 2006a). Currently there are a number of interesting discussions taking place associated with the scope of clinical kinesiology relative to some of the other, already established, health professions (e.g., psychology, occupational and physical therapy; E.A. Roy, personal communication, September 5, 2006). Although the establishment of a professional college of kinesiology is very welcome to clinical kinesiologists working in the field, some university departments are concerned with the prospect of a professional college driving future curriculum developments, as is the case in professions such as engineering (J.L. Starkes, personal communication, July 14, 2006). Recall the first kinesiology programs were designed to take the human movement programs beyond a course of professional training. In one sense, we have come full circle. It is also the case that many of the people who teach in kinesiology programs in Canada are specialists in one of the parent disciplines. They work in a kinesiology department because of an interest in human movement. At least some of the people who teach important components of the kinesiology curriculum would not qualify for certification as kinesiologists under the current rules.

9 162 Elliott Although the pioneers of kinesiology, such as Professors Ashton and Banister, can be justly proud of the impact their ideas have had on post-secondary school education, employment opportunities, and research in Canada and elsewhere, we all need to be vigilant as to how a growing professionalism will impact how kinesiology will be defined and presented to undergraduate students. It may well be that kinesiology will develop like psychology, taking both clinical and basic research paths. The former approach may be driven more by professional kinesiologists working in the community than by academia. Acknowledgments Thanks to Professors Norm Ashton, Eric Roy, and Arthur Chapman for their insights into the early days at Waterloo and Simon Fraser. Thanks as well to Professor Janet Starkes for clarifying several issues associated with CCUPEKA, and Professor Dan Weeks for finding old calendar copy at the SFU library. References Ashton, N.J. (2006). Kinesiology, the first 15 years ( ca/~nashton/dephist/origins.htm). Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators (2006). ( Canadian Kinesiology Alliance (2006). ( Harrigan, P.J. (2004). Finding their place: The history of the Canadian Council of University Physical Education and Kinesiology Administrators (CCUPEKA). Toronto: University of Toronto. Ontario Kinesiology Alliance (2006a). About kinesiology. ( Ontario Kinesiology Alliance (2006b). Certified membership application. ( oka.on.ca/). Simon Fraser University (1975). Undergraduate Calendar. Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC: Simon Fraser University.