Dr Rochelle Sibley Academic Writing Programme 6 th October Warwick Business School

Transcription

1 Dr Rochelle Sibley Academic Writing Programme 6 th October 2011

2 Outline of the session The stages of the writing process Ten critical questions

3 The writing process Effective writing begins where research does with a question Keep the big picture in mind Keep readers informed of your progress Make sure you address your writing objectives

4 The writing process 5 steps towards researching / writing your assignment: Inventing Planning Drafting Revising Editing

5 Inventing Generating ideas through research and discussion: Brainstorming: what do I already know? What areas do I need to research? Survey and skim through available resources to identify potentially useful material What information have I collected from my research?

6 Effective brainstorming Think about how to use the knowledge you already have look at your module notes. It is very important to assess which models and theories will work best for your assignment. It is also important to think laterally about how to approach your task multi-faceted problems will have a multitude of possible solutions. Taking time to do this will have a real impact on your work problem-solving and overall approach.

7 Planning Organising your material and your thoughts: Read the material you have collected and keep wellreferenced notes of the data, the models/theories and any ideas you might want to use Sketch out a rough outline of which ideas / themes your report will attempt to tackle. Keep in mind the constraints and criteria of your assignment as you do so.

8 Using constraints and criteria When you are trying to work out your possible solutions, keep in mind constraints and critieria. As well as observing the constraints associated with a problem or task You also need to establish your own set of criteria for assessing which of your possible solutions you are going to select. You need to be clear about which criteria are commercial and which are based on corporate or personal value judgements.

9 Constraints vs criteria Are fixed, non-negotiable restrictions. Work on a sliding scale rather than as absolutes. Would include deadlines, method of analysis, project aims, etc. Can limit your approach to a task. but can also encourage creative responses. Would include requirements such as making a project as cost effective as possible Allow you to show judgement about how you prioritise them. Constraints Criteria

10 Drafting Attempting to write a first draft, or various sections of the assignment as information becomes available. The Christmas cracker model Writer s block Keep in mind practical constraints (time / word limit / format / purpose / audience) Use references consistently even if in your drafts

11 Revising (large-scale changes) The writing process is recursive, so: Check that you have addressed the question you set out to investigate Check the logic of your central argument Check the accuracy of the data presented Check that you have not plagiarised Check that you have fulfilled the requirements of the assignment with respect to presentation and length

12 Editing (small-scale changes) NEVER SUBMIT A FIRST DRAFT Proofread for spelling, grammar and typos Check headings and titles of figures / tables Check the presentation Check document integrity

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14 Why do you need critical thinking? One of the key skills you need for success in written assignments is the ability to give your own informed viewpoint on the problem/topic. This means you need to be comfortable evaluating other people s opinions and approaches. Without this skill you will not show reflective thought or originality both elements of the marking criteria for top-scoring work.

15 10 critical questions These questions can be applied to any model, theory or research studies that you use in your assignment. 1. What are the issues and the conclusions? 2. What are the reasons? 3. Which words or phrases are ambiguous? 4. What are the assumptions? 5. Are there any fallacies in the reasoning?

16 10 critical questions 6. How good is the evidence? 7. Are there rival causes? 8. Are the statistics deceptive? 9. What significant information is omitted? 10. What reasonable conclusions are possible? These are from M. Neil Browne s Asking the Right Questions, which has online resources too.

17 1. What are the issue and conclusion? The issue is the question, topic or idea that the article is addressing. Issues can be descriptive or prescriptive. The conclusion is the viewpoint it wishes the reader to take away from the argument. Conclusions are inferred they are based on the reasons. We cannot critically evaluate the issue until we find the conclusion.

18 1. What are the issue and conclusion? Descriptive Raises questions about the accuracy of the state or knowledge about a specific issue Presents the problem to be addressed Prescriptive Raises questions about what we should do or how we should do it Offers solutions

19 2. What are the reasons? Reasons + Conclusion = argument You need to identify the reasons to evaluate the conclusion. Phrases that identify reasons: As a result of... For the reason that... is supported by Since the evidence is Researchers found that...

20 3. What words or phrases are ambiguous? You cannot evaluate an essay until you know the author s intended meaning. Four important questions to identify potential ambiguities: What are the key terms and phrases? Which of these are adequately defined? Which of these possess other definitions? Which are ambiguous in the context of the argument?

21 3. What words or phrases are ambiguous? It is equally important to address potential ambiguity and your own writing: Define your terms Establish your context Set your limitations

22 4. What are the value conflicts and assumptions? An assumption is an unstated belief that supports the explicit reasoning. Assumptions are: hidden or unstated (in most cases) taken for granted influential in determining the conclusion, and potentially deceptive

23 4. What are the value conflicts and assumptions? Value assumption is the taken-for-granted belief about the relative desirability of certain competing values. Look for value assumptions in the movement from reasons to conclusions. Reason + value assumption = conclusion

24 4. What are the value conflicts and assumptions? There are several common value conflicts that will influence the conclusion in a line of reasoning: Loyalty - honesty competition cooperation Freedom of press national security Equality individualism Order freedom of speech Rationality spontaneity Tradition - novelty

25 5. Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? Fallacies occur when the writer: provides reasoning that requires erroneous or incorrect assumptions distracts us by making information seem relevant to the conclusion provides support for the conclusion that depends on the latter already being true

26 Some common fallacies Ad hominem attacking the person not their argument Equivocation equating very different ideas Ad populum appealing to popular opinion Straw person misrepresenting an opposing argument in order to attack it effectively.

27 6. How good is the evidence? To identify the value of the evidence first locate all the factual claims. Potential sources of evidence include: Intuition Personal experience Appeals to authority Personal observations Case examples Research studies

28 Questions used for evaluating research studies What is the quality of the source? What are the strengths of the research? Has the study been replicated? How selective has the communicator been in choosing studies? Is there evidence of strong critical thinking? Is there evidence of possible bias? How far can we generalise from this evidence?

29 7. Are there rival causes? A rival cause is a plausible interpretation, different from one author s interpretation, that can explain why a certain outcome occurred. Experts can examine the same evidence and come up with different causes to explain it. Although many explanations can fit the facts, some seem more plausible than others. Most communicators will provide you with only their favoured causes; you should generate rival causes.

30 8. Are the statistics deceptive? Confusing averages Concluding one thing, proving another Deceiving by omitting information Risk statistics and omitted information

31 9. What significant information has been omitted? Omitted information is inevitable for at least five reasons: Time and space limitations Limited attention span Deception Inadequacies in human knowledge Existence of different perspectives

32 10. What reasonable conclusions are possible? Assumptions and multiple conclusions Search for, and acknowledge multiple conclusions Alternative solutions as conclusions

33 Asking the right questions As you read for research As you analyse problems or case studies As you write up solutions As you write the discussion section of your dissertations

34 Get in the habit of: Generating your own critical questions Soliciting feedback from your peers Asking critical questions about every aspect of your writing

35 Sources of further information RLF fellows in room H544 of the Humanities building offer bookable appointments on Tuesdays and Wednesdays during term time (starting from week 3 of term 1). Students who have English as an additional language can receive support from the Centre for Applied Linguistics (CAL).