J Micah Roos. Graduate School of Education University of California, Berkeley

Transcription

1 + J Micah Roos Graduate School of Education University of California, Berkeley jmicah@berkeley.edu

2 + Contested Knowledge Competing Truth Claims at the Intersection of Science and Religion.

3 + Sections Measurement analysis of NSF knowledge scale Science and religion, their intersection Theoretical concepts Summary of Findings Background literature in the area of science and religion Predictors of science knowledge Next steps

4 + NSF Science Knowledge Scale Existed in present form since 1995 Part of NSF Surveys of Public Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology 1, ( ) Included in General Social Survey (GSS) since wave : Miller, Jon D., Linda Kimmel, ORC Macro, and NORC National Science Foundation Surveys of Public Attitudes Toward And Understanding of Science And Technology, [Computer File]. 3rd Roper Center Version. Retrieved (

5 + NSF Science Knowledge Scale NSF scale originally conceptualized as two-dimensional Fact-based Knowledge Methodological Knowledge Used this way by Evans (2011) Originally presented by Miller (1983, 1987, 1998, 2004) Some recent work treats NSF scale as monolithic One dimension underlies the scale Used this way by many (Sherkat 2011; Gauchat 2010)

6 + NSF Scale Items Now, please think about this situation. Two scientists want to know if a certain drug is effective against high blood pressure. The first scientist wants to give the drug to one thousand people with high blood pressure and see how many of them experience lower blood pressure levels. The second scientist wants to give the drug to five hundred people with high blood pressure, and not give the drug to another five hundred people with high blood pressure, and see how many in both groups experience lower blood pressure levels. EXPDESGN: Which is the better way to test this drug? 1: All 1000 get the drug 2: 500 get the drug; 500 don't Now, think about this situation. A doctor tells a couple that their genetic makeup means that they ve got one in four chances of having a child with an inherited illness. (Answers took the form: Yes, No, or Don t Know) ODDS1: Does this mean that if their first child has the illness, the next three will not have the illness? ODDS2: Does this mean that each of the couple s children will have the same risk of suffering from the illness?

7 + NSF Scale Items Now, I would like to ask you a few short questions like those you might see on a television game show. For each statement that I read, please tell me if it is true or false. If you don t know or aren t sure, just tell me so, and we will skip to the next question. Remember true, false, or don t know. HOTCORE: First, the center of the Earth is very hot. (Is that true or false?) RADIOACT: All radioactivity is man-made. (Is that true or false?) BOYORGRL: It is the father s gene that decides whether the baby is a boy or a girl. (Is that true or false?) LASERS: Lasers work by focusing sound waves. (Is that true or false?) ELECTRON: Electrons are smaller than atoms. (Is that true or false?) VIRUSES: Antibiotics kill viruses as well as bacteria. (Is that true or false?) BIGBANG: The universe began with a huge explosion. (Is that true or false?) CONDRIFT: The continents on which we live have been moving their locations for millions of years and will continue to move in the future. (Is that true or false?) EVOLVED: Human beings, as we know them today, developed from earlier species of animals. (Is that true or false?)

8 + NSF Scale Items EARTHSUN: SOLARREV 1 : Now, does the Earth go around the Sun, or does the Sun go around the Earth? How long does it take for the Earth to go around the Sun: one day, one month, or one year? All items had a don t know response option, and these were coded as incorrect answers in each case with the reasoning that for an item assessing factual knowledge, a don t know response is incorrect. Used in this way by most (Evans 2011; Sherkat 2011; Gauchat 2010; National Science Board 2010, 2012, 2014) 1: (EARTHSUN and SOLARREV are combined as one item in the NSF s Indicators, I combine them here as SOLARREV was only asked if a correct answer was given for EARTHSUN)

9 Percentage of Correct Responses to NSF Scale items by Year 85% 75% 65% 55% 45% 35% hotcore condrift radioact earthsun electron lasers evolved viruses boyorgrl expdesgn odds1 odds2 bigbang 25%

10 (A) Monolithic Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, implied model structure from summed scale (with disturbance terms) Science Knowledge x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

11 (B) Two Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, implied model structure from literature Science Fact Knowledge Science Method Knowledge 1 1 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

12 (C) Two Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, proposed new model structure (topic areas) Physical Sciences Knowledge (PFact) Life Sciences Knowledge (LSFact) 1 1 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

13 (C ) Two Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, new model structure (topic areas), Correlated errors for items that may load on a religious factor Physical Sciences Knowledge (PFact) Life Sciences Knowledge (LSFact) 1 1 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

14 (D) Three Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, Topic areas plus rejection factor Physical Sciences Knowledge (PFact) Rejection (of mainstream Science) Life Sciences Knowledge (LSFact) x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

15 (E) Three Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, Topic areas plus rejection factor (Evolved and Bigbang reverse coded) Physical Sciences Knowledge (PFact) Rejection (of mainstream Science) Life Sciences Knowledge (LSFact) x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2

16 + Is the third factor of a religious nature? Included indicator of Biblical Literalism (GSS BIBLE item) Question prompt: Which of these statements comes closest to describing your feelings about the Bible? 1=The Bible is the actual word of God and is to be taken literally, word for word. 2=The Bible is the inspired word of God but not everything in it should be taken literally, word for word 3=The Bible is an ancient book of fables, legends, history, and moral precepts recorded by men. Roughly 1/3 of respondents in each category

17 (E ) Three Factor Model Science Knowledge from 2006 GSS, Topic areas plus rejection factor, With Bible item added. (Evolved, Bible, and Bigbang reverse coded) Physical Sciences Knowledge (PFact) Rejection (of mainstream Science) Life Sciences Knowledge (LSFact) x x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10 x 11 x 12 x x 1 = Hotcore x 2 = Earthsun x 3 = Electron x 4 = Radioact x 5 = Lasers x 6 = Condrift x 7 = Bigbang x 8 = Evolved x 9 = Boyorgrl x 10 = Viruses x 11 = Expdesgn x 12 = Odds1 x 13 = Odds2 x 14 = Bible

18 R-squares and between-factor correlations for final model with and without Bible indicator added Factor correlations Model E (SE) E + bib (SE) Rejection with PFact (.045) (.039) Rejection with LSFact (.059) (.054) PFact with LSFact (.044) (.045) R 2 Model E (SE) E + bib (SE) BIBLE (.052) EXPDESGN (.051) (.052) ODDS (.073) (.074) ODDS (.049) (.048) HOTCORE (.052) (.052) RADIOACT (.048) (.048) BOYORGRL (.035) (.034) LASERS (.050) (.049) ELECTRON (.045) (.044) VIRUSES (.056) (.057) EARTHSUN (.047) (.047) BIGBANG (.081) (.063) CONDRIFT (.049) (.049) EVOLVED (.093) (.063)

19 + Model fit for exploratory models (first random half of 2006 GSS) Model n RMSEA CFI TLI 2 DF P-val BIC Model A Model B Model C Model D Model E Model F Model F: Diagram not shown here Miller s fact and method dimensions with third RSO dimension.

20 + Model E replication across eight samples Model E replicated across all samples n RMSEA CFI TLI 2 DF P-val BIC (1 st half) (2 nd half) : not from the GSS from National Science Foundation Surveys of Public Understanding of Science and Technology combined dataset, was the first year the expdesgn and boyorgrl items were present. (Miller et al, 2009).

21 + Science Knowledge and RSO Measurement Model expdesgn viruses boyorgrl odds1 odds Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy (RSO) Physical Science Knowledge (PFact) Life Science Knowledge (LSFact) evolved bigbang condrift hotcore earthsun electron radioact lasers Source: Roos 2012:8 CFA model fit for first half of 2006 GSS: n=908; RMSEA=.024; CFI=.988; TLI=.984; χ 2 =90.147, DF=60; BIC(χ 2 - DF*ln(n))= ; p=.007

22 + Science and Religion

23 + Religion and Science Highly salient in the minds of the public, particularly around the issue of Evolution Public attitudes may impact adoption of education standards In play in Kentucky, Ohio, and elsewhere Attitudes may also impact public funding Any research program seen as distasteful to the public may be under threat

24 + Religion and Science, Background Evans and Evans 2008: there is no Epistemological Conflict between religion and science Sherkat 2011: Link between biblical literalism and reduced science knowledge, 2006 GSS data Evans 2011: No link between religious affiliation and reduced science knowledge, 2006 GSS data Rughinis 2011: Survey items about evolution may not measure science literacy

25 + Religion, Science, and Education Darnell and Sherkat (1997): Protestant Fundamentalism negatively associated with educational attainment Beyerlein (2004) negative link between conservative Protestantism and educational attainment may not apply for most evangelicals

26 + Main Findings of current Project: Survey items about human evolution and the Big Bang are poor measures of uncontested science knowledge Conservative Protestants (CPs) have lower levels of uncontested science knowledge than unaffiliated persons or other religious affiliations. Much of the indirect effect from CPs to uncontested science knowledge flows through contested knowledge.

27 + Theoretical Concepts Contested Knowledge Areas Spillover Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy (RSO)

28 + Uncontested Knowledge Areas One source of knowledge authority The boiling point of water (air pressure, water purity, temperature) Wind resistance, coefficient of drag Seasons caused not by proximity to the Sun, but by the angle of light Just because a truth claim is obscure does not mean it is contested

29 + Contested Knowledge Areas Situated at the intersection of two or more spheres of knowledge authority Overlapping symbolic universes (Berger and Luckmann 1967) Within these areas, there are competing truth claims as well as alternate rules for assessing the legitimacy of those claims Positions within a contested knowledge area can impact knowledge of uncontested knowledge. (Spillover)

30 + Contested Knowledge Areas Science Religion

31 + Contested Knowledge Areas Origins of life, Life s variation, beginnings of the universe (Origins) Science Religion

32 + Spillover Acrimonious relations in a contested area can spill over into uncontested areas Rejection of standards for assessing legitimate knowledge within the contested area can lead to rejection of those standards in uncontested areas e.g.: Richard Dawkins arguing the falseness of religion based on standards for assessing scientific knowledge

33 + Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy (RSO)* *Or: The rejection of evolution (and related ideas) Origins Science Religion

34 + Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy (RSO) The Rejection, usually for religious reasons, of mainstream scientific explanations for the origins of life, life s variation, and the beginnings of the universe. Positions along the RSO dimension are more about presenting identity than simply fact-based knowledge. Those high on the RSO dimension would claim human evolution to be a false concept Those low on RSO would claim the reverse

35 + Science Knowledge and RSO My analysis found evidence for three underlying dimensions: Physical Sciences Life Sciences Rejection of Orthodox Scientific Understandings of Origins (RSO) Evolution and Big Bang items don t load on Physical or Life Sciences Addition of biblical literalism indicator to RSO did not alter the relation of RSO to uncontested science knowledge, nor the R- Squares for other indicators.

36 + Science Knowledge and RSO Measurement Model expdesgn viruses boyorgrl odds1 odds Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy (RSO) Physical Science Knowledge (PFact) Life Science Knowledge (LSFact) evolved bigbang condrift hotcore earthsun electron radioact lasers Source: Roos 2012:8 CFA model fit for first half of 2006 GSS: n=908; RMSEA=.024; CFI=.988; TLI=.984; χ 2 =90.147, DF=60; BIC(χ 2 - DF*ln(n))= ; p=.007

37 + Covariates Parent Education Mother s or Father s education in years, whichever is greater Race Black, Hispanic, Other race; White as reference. Religious attendance Range from 0=never, 4=once a month, 8=more than once per week

38 + Covariates Religious Affiliation Modified RELTRAD (from Steensland et al 2000) Conservative Protestants Mainline Protestants and non-conservative Black Protestants Catholics Other Religious (including Jewish and Muslim) Non-Affiliated Age (in years) Range:18-89; mean: 47.6; SD: 17.3 Gender (0=Female; 1=Male)

39 + Intervening Variables Education, in years Range: 0-20; mean: 13.4; SD: 3.17 (continious by convention) Number of college science courses taken Range from 0-9 (those that report more than 9 courses collapsed into the 9 category; less than 5% of respondents; ordinal) RSO Measured by the Evolution, Big Bang, and Continental Drift items (Bible item not included; including it does not markedly alter results)

40 Paths from exogenous to endogenous variables omitted for clarity. : Religious Affiliation represented by dummy variables for the following groups: Conservative Protestant, Mainline Protestant, Catholic, Other Religious (including Jewish), with those that reported no affiliation as the reference group (18.57% fell into the no affiliation category). : Race represented by dummy variables for black (non-hispanic), Hispanic, other race (non-hispanic), with white (nonhispanic) as the reference group. + Path Diagram: Full Model, waves of GSS pooled Parent Education Religious Af<iliation Age Female Race Religious Attendance ζ 4 Educational Attainment in years ζ 5 Number of College science courses RSO ζ 3 PFact LSFact ζ 1 ζ 2

41 + Description of Equations: PFact and LSFact Both Life and Physical sciences are explained by: RSO Educational attainment Number of college science courses taken Parent education Religious affiliation Age Gender Race Religious attendance

42 + Description of Equations: RSO Rejection of Scientific Orthodoxy explained by: Educational attainment Number of college science courses taken Parent education Religious affiliation Age Gender Race Religious attendance

43 + Description of Equations: Educational Attainment and Number of college science courses Educational Attainment explained by: Parent education Religious affiliation Age Gender Race Religious attendance Number of college science courses taken explained by: Parent education Religious affiliation Age Gender Race Religious attendance

44 + Full Model, waves of GSS pooled (cross-sections) Parent Education Religious Af<iliation ζ 4 Educational Attainment in years RSO ζ 3 ζ 1 Age ζ 5 PFact Female Race Religious Attendance Number of College science courses LSFact ζ 2 Paths from exogenous to endogenous variables omitted for clarity. N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

45 Parameter estimates from full structural model Est PFact Est/SE Est LSFact Est/SE Est RSO Est/SE RSO *** *** Number of College Science Courses *** *** *** Educational Attainment *** *** *** Religious Attendance *** ** *** Parent Educational Attainment *** *** *** Age *** *** Female *** *** *** Black *** *** *** Hispanic *** *** Other Race (Non-Hispanic) *** *** Conservative Protestant *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** ** Other Religious Affiliation R-Square N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

46 Parameter estimates from full structural model Est PFact Est/SE Est LSFact Est/SE Est RSO Est/SE RSO *** *** Number of College Science Courses *** *** *** Educational Attainment *** *** *** Religious Attendance *** ** *** Parent Educational Attainment *** *** *** Age *** *** Female *** *** *** Black *** *** *** Hispanic *** *** Other Race (Non-Hispanic) *** *** Conservative Protestant *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** ** Other Religious Affiliation R-Square N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

47 Parameter estimates from full structural model, Continued Educational Attainment Number of college science courses taken Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Religious Attendance *** *** Parent Educational Attainment *** *** Age *** Female *** Black *** *** Hispanic *** Other Race (Non-Hispanic) *** *** Conservative Protestant *** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** Other Religious Affiliation R-Square N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

48 Parameter estimates from full structural model, Continued Educational Attainment Number of college science courses taken Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Religious Attendance *** *** Parent Educational Attainment *** *** Age *** Female *** Black *** *** Hispanic *** Other Race (Non-Hispanic) *** *** Conservative Protestant *** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** Other Religious Affiliation R-Square N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

49 + Total, direct, and indirect effects of religious tradition variables on uncontested science knowledge Total effects Indirect Effects Direct effects PFact Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Conservative Protestant *** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** Other Religious LSFact Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Conservative Protestant ** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** Other Religious N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

50 + Total, direct, and indirect effects of religious tradition variables on uncontested science knowledge Total effects Indirect Effects Direct effects PFact Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Conservative Protestant *** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** Other Religious LSFact Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Est Est/SE Conservative Protestant ** *** Mainline Protestant Catholic *** *** Other Religious N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

51 + Full Model, waves of GSS pooled (cross-sections) Parent Education Religious Af<iliation ζ 4 Educational Attainment in years RSO ζ 3 ζ 1 Age ζ 5 PFact Female Race Religious Attendance Number of College science courses LSFact ζ 2 Paths from exogenous to endogenous variables omitted for clarity. N=4861, waves of GSS, ***=p<.05, **=p<.01, ***=p<.001, two-tailed tests RMSEA =.027, CFI =.952, TLI =.932, 2 = (df: 190; P <=.000), Schwarz-BIC =

52 + Main Findings of current Project:

53 + Main Findings of current Project: Survey items about human evolution and the Big Bang are poor measures of uncontested science knowledge Conservative Protestants (CPs) have lower levels of uncontested science knowledge than unaffiliated persons or other religious affiliations. Much of the indirect effect from CPs to uncontested science knowledge flows through contested knowledge.

54 + Next Steps Investigate stability of RSO in individuals, using GSS panel data Alternate item wording Look to new contested knowledge areas Human-influenced climate change The link between vaccines and autism

55 + Thank you

56 +

57 + NSF Scale Items Now, please think about this situation. Two scientists want to know if a certain drug is effective against high blood pressure. The first scientist wants to give the drug to one thousand people with high blood pressure and see how many of them experience lower blood pressure levels. The second scientist wants to give the drug to five hundred people with high blood pressure, and not give the drug to another five hundred people with high blood pressure, and see how many in both groups experience lower blood pressure levels. EXPDESGN: Which is the better way to test this drug? 1: All 1000 get the drug 2: 500 get the drug; 500 don't Now, think about this situation. A doctor tells a couple that their genetic makeup means that they ve got one in four chances of having a child with an inherited illness. (Answers took the form: Yes, No, or Don t Know) ODDS1: Does this mean that if their first child has the illness, the next three will not have the illness? ODDS2: Does this mean that each of the couple s children will have the same risk of suffering from the illness?

58 + NSF Scale Items Now, I would like to ask you a few short questions like those you might see on a television game show. For each statement that I read, please tell me if it is true or false. If you don t know or aren t sure, just tell me so, and we will skip to the next question. Remember true, false, or don t know. HOTCORE: First, the center of the Earth is very hot. Is that true or false? RADIOACT: All radioactivity is man-made. (Is that true or false?) BOYORGRL: It is the father s gene that decides whether the baby is a boy or a girl. (Is that true or false?) LASERS: Lasers work by focusing sound waves. (Is that true or false?) ELECTRON: Electrons are smaller than atoms. (Is that true or false?) VIRUSES: Antibiotics kill viruses as well as bacteria. (Is that true or false?) BIGBANG: The universe began with a huge explosion. (Is that true or false?) CONDRIFT: The continents on which we live have been moving their locations for millions of years and will continue to move in the future. (Is that true or false?) EVOLVED: Human beings, as we know them today, developed from earlier species of animals. (Is that true or false?)

59 + NSF Scale Items EARTHSUN: SOLARREV 1 : Now, does the Earth go around the Sun, or does the Sun go around the Earth? How long does it take for the Earth to go around the Sun: one day, one month, or one year? All items had a don t know response option, and these were coded as incorrect answers in each case with the reasoning that for an item assessing factual knowledge, a don t know response is incorrect. 1: (EARTHSUN and SOLARREV are combined as one item in the NSF s Indicators, I combine them here as SOLARREV was only asked if a correct answer was given for EARTHSUN)

60 + Science Knowledge/Literacy The National Academy of Sciences Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education has defined science literacy as the ability to: [A]sk, find, or determine answers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a person has the ability to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. Scientific literacy entails being able to read with understanding articles about science in the popular press and to engage in social conversation about the validity of the conclusions.

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62 + Science Knowledge and RSO Measurement Model fit across seven samples n RMSEA CFI TLI 2 BIC (1 st half) (2 nd half) : not from the GSS from National Science Foundation Surveys of Public Understanding of Science and Technology combined dataset,

63 + Science Knowledge and RSO Measurement Model fit across eight samples n RMSEA CFI TLI 2 BIC (1 st half) (2 nd half) : not from the GSS from National Science Foundation Surveys of Public Understanding of Science and Technology combined dataset,